https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Zhou+YuanquChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T11:18:49ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11949920201228 trans2020-12-28T04:10:26Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
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据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
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'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
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对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
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2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
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3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
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3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
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在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
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20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''<br />
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相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
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Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
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文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
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感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
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为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
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让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
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-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为什么散文像小说一样丰富？<br />
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让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：<br />
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这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。 对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。 散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。 它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
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- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
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- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
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3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
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3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
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关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
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然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
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I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
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5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).<br />
<br />
梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。<br />
<br />
6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。<br />
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
<br />
<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。 原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。 周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。 在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。 一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。 两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
<br />
此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
<br />
“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
<br />
抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
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《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
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玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
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在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
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Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
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8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
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In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
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尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
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One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
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9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“非二元”小说<br />
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一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
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Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.<br />
<br />
<br />
机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信<br />
<br />
口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
'''3种分析类型'''<br />
<br />
1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）<br />
<br />
2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）<br />
<br />
3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）<br />
<br />
4..流动概况/模式<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。<br />
<br />
8，消费者行为：例如 在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）<br />
<br />
9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?<br />
<br />
但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。 骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力 。 如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_cult&diff=11949720201228 cult2020-12-28T04:07:44Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
<br />
1.When people see some things as beautiful, other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad. <br />
<br />
当人们将某些事物视为美丽时，其他事物则变得丑陋。当人们将某些事情视为好事时，其他事情则变得不好。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.In China, the work has been by many attributed to Confucius himself, but the philological investigations to date do not allow to go back to a reliable source, partly because of the devastating book burning of 213 BC by the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang. <br />
<br />
在中国，许多人把这本书归功于孔子本人，但迄今为止的语言研究还不能追溯到可靠的来源，部分原因是秦始皇秦始皇于公元前213年毁灭性地烧毁了这本书。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.One realizes it, while another is ignorant of it. <br />
<br />
一个人意识到了这一点，而另一个人则一无所知。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Perhaps I don’t understand economics, but economics does not understand me, either. <br />
<br />
也许我不了解经济学，但经济学却不了解也了解我.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
1. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。<br />
<br />
The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao.<br />
<br />
The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.<br />
<br />
2. 子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”<br />
<br />
The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one's merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?<br />
<br />
3. 菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。<br />
<br />
No such thing as the Budhi tree,<br />
<br />
Nor a mirror stand that can be.<br />
<br />
There is nothing in the first place,<br />
<br />
Whereon can the dust and dirt creep?<br />
<br />
4. 生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受；此外又有诗歌、艺术、沉思、友情、谈天、读书等的享受，后者的这些都是心灵交流的不同表现。<br />
<br />
The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life, of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad things in Nature, and then the enjoyment of poetry, art, contemplation, friendship, conversation, and reading, which are all some form or other of the communion of spirits.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The enjoyment of life includes many things: our own enjoyment, the enjoyment of family life, trees, flowers, clouds, streams, waterfalls, and all kinds of nature are enough to be called enjoyment; in addition, there are poetry, art, contemplation, the enjoyment of friendship, chatting, reading, etc., the latter are all different manifestations of spiritual communication.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he lived in seclusion. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of his thoughts is "Tao".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before his retirement. Later he created the Tao Te Ching, of which the core thought is "Tao".--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。<br />
<br />
The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature to art,and from education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects recorded Confucius' words and deeds. It covers a wide range of topics, from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。<br />
<br />
The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are characterized by "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book for refreshing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can purify our hearts tarnished by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book that cleanses the mind, a cup of good tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts stained with dust and allow us to find peace in noisy cities--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响 。<br />
<br />
Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
<br />
The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。<br />
<br />
The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
<br />
1. Yet mystery and manifestations arise from the same source. This source is called darkness. <br />
<br />
然而神秘和表现来自同一来源。这种来源称为黑暗。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Started during the Spring and Autumn Period, the work of collection and organization of Confucian teachings was probably completed during the Warring States Period, although the precise date of publication of the complete work is unknown. <br />
<br />
春秋时期开始，儒家教义的收集和整理工作可能是在战国时期完成的，尽管确切的出版日期尚不清楚。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Through ten chapters, the Platform Sutra cites and explains a wide range of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures. <br />
<br />
在十章中，《纲经》引用并解释了大乘佛教经文。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. The ancient people who desired to have a clear moral harmony in the world would first order their national life. <br />
<br />
希望在世界上建立清晰的道德和睦的远古民族首先会下定民族生活。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
1.《论语》是儒家的经典著作之一，它是对孔子及其弟子的言行和对话的记录。众所周知，孔子是一位伟大的思想家和哲学家，他的思想被发展成了的儒家哲学体系。《论语》是儒家思想的代表作，数个世纪以来，《论语》一直极大地影响着中国人的哲学观和道德观，它也影响着其他亚洲国家人民的哲学观和道德观。<br />
<br />
The Analects of Confucius is one of the Confucius classics and is a record of the words and acts of Confucius and his disciples,as well as the conversations they held.It's<br />
well known that Confucius is agreat ideologist and philosopher,and his thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophyknownasConfucianism.The Analects ofConfucius<br />
is a representative work of Confucianism.For centuries, it has been heavily influencing the philosophy and moral outlook of Chinese people and that of the people of other Asian countries as well.<br />
<br />
2.慧能的两个核心理念成为了正统佛教的精髓要义，其一，“无论社会阶层，无论精神文化，一切众生皆有佛性”；其二，“醒觉并非依靠冥想渐悟，而是一种瞬间的顿悟。”<br />
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His two key ideas became the essence of orthodox Buddhism, namely that "all people,regardless of their social, culturalor spiritual condition, possess the Buddha nature" and that "awakening is not a meditation but a sudden, instantaneous process." <br />
<br />
3.一次，学生子贡问孔子：“有一言而可以终身行之者乎？”子曰：“其恕乎。己所不欲，勿施于人。”<br />
<br />
Once,Zi Gong, one of Confucius’ disciples, asked the philosopher: “Is there any one word that can guide one throughout his life?”Confucius answered:“<br />
Maybe it’s magnanimity! What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。 <br />
<br />
"The Art of Life" is the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has achieved success after "My Country and My People". The book was published in the United States in 1937, reprinted more than forty times, and translated into more than ten languages.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]]<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
<br />
1. Laozi in the Tao Te Ching explains that the Tao is not a "name" for a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.<br />
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《道德经》中的老子解释道是不是“事物”的“名称”，而是宇宙的内在自然秩序，由于其非概念性但在生命力中很明显，其最终本质很难被限制。<br />
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2. Analects is the China’s sacred book, the representative work of Confucianism. A collection of answers of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples.<br />
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《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒之间对话的答案的集合。<br />
<br />
《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。 孔子与门徒对话的答案集。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.<br />
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林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路形成于汉武帝时期。南海航线从中国出发，向西航行，是海上丝绸之路的主线。<br />
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The maritime silk road was formed in the time of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty. The South China Sea route, which starts from China and sails westward, is the mainstream of the maritime silk road.<br />
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3.苏曼殊浪漫主义不是西学东渐的直接产物，而是固有文化生态发生结构变动之结果。<br />
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The formation of Su Manshu's romantic style was not the direct result of the eastward spread of Western learning but was the natural outcome of structural change in China's innate cultural ecosystem. <br />
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4.洋务派是中国近代最早的全面系统地接触近代科学技术的一个政治派别。<br />
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Advocates of the westernization movement was the first political school that touched modern science and technology comprehensively and systematically in China.<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。<br />
<br />
1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.<br />
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2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.<br />
<br />
3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。<br />
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3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.<br />
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4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br />
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4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"The Art of Living" was the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has been successful since then. The book was published in the United States in 1937, and it ranked first in the United States bestseller list for 52 weeks in the following year,and has been republished more than forty times, and has been translated for more than ten languages.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br />
<br />
''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。、<br />
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Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》中保留了一些人们对孔子师徒的批评讽刺，有的作了辩驳，有的没有回答。<br />
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The Analects of Confucius retains some criticisms and ironies of Confucius' teachers and disciples, some of which have made refutation, while others have not.<br />
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3. 慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。<br />
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Huineng's Zen method is based on determining wisdom, thinking that awareness is inherent, but troubles are not.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 《活着》是作家余华的代表作之一，讲述了在大时代背景下，随着内战、三反五反，大跃进，文化大革命等社会变革，徐福贵的人生和家庭不断经受着苦难，到了最后所有亲人都先后离他而去，仅剩下年老的他和一头老牛相依为命。<br />
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Living is one of Yu Hua's representative works, which tells how Xu Fugui's life and family are constantly suffering with the civil war, the three anti-five evils, the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution and other social changes. In the end, all his relatives have left him one after another, leaving only an old cow.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.《道德经》九九八十一章，可理解为《道经》（上篇）和《德经》（下篇）两个部分，言简意赅、博大精深。大至宇宙、小至微尘，大无其外，小无其内；有修身、用人、治国。<br />
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The eighty-one chapters of the Tao Te Ching, which can be understood as two parts, the Tao Te Ching (upper part) and the De Te Ching (lower part), are concise and profound. It is as big as the universe and as small as the dust; there is no outside of the big and no inside of the small; there is the cultivation of the body, the use of people and the governance of the country.<br />
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2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is mainly a collection of essays in the form of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.<br />
<br />
3.相传，有一位名叫慧能的砍柴夫，虽然目不识丁，却开创了佛教的南禅宗派，提出“人人皆有佛性”，进而确立“顿悟成佛”之学。<br />
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According to legend, an illiterate woodsman called Huineng founded the "Sudden Enlightenment" or the Southern Chan School of Buddhism and propounded the idea that everyone possesses "the Buddha nature."<br />
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4.生活是10%的经历，和90%的态度。我们无时无刻不在书写我们的生活经历，我们可以选择生活的台词。当下，我们可以放下自我怀疑、愤怒、沮丧。当下，我们可以选择幸福。<br />
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Life is 10% what happens to you and 90% how you interpret it and put it into perspective.Right now we're writing our life stories, and we can choose how the script will read. Right now we can put behind us self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Life is 10% experience and 90% attitude. Right now we're experiencing our life, and we can choose how to live. Right now we can put behind our self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。<br />
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The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.<br />
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2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。<br />
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Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.<br />
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3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。<br />
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The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。<br />
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With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1. 写于两千多年前的《道德经》是真正的精神文学经典之一。它是一个培养和平、宁静和同情的指南。<br />
Written more than two thousand years ago, the Tao Te Ching is one of the true classics of spiritual literature. It is a guide to cultivating peace, serenity, and compassion.<br />
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The Tao Te Ching, written more than two thousand years ago, is one of the true spiritual literature classics. It is a guide to cultivate peace, tranquility and compassion.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》写于春秋战国时期（约公元前479年至公元前221年），被认为是儒家思想最具代表性的著作之一，至今仍对中国文化和东亚产生了重大影响。<br />
Written during the Period of Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (ca. 479 BC - 221 BC), the Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.<br />
<br />
3.慧能（638-713）也许是禅宗中最受人喜爱和尊敬的人物。他本是一个目不识丁的樵夫，却一下子获得了觉悟，成为中国禅宗的第六宗师，被誉为“顿悟派”的创始人。<br />
Hui-neng (638–713) is perhaps the most beloved and respected figure in Zen Buddhism. An illiterate woodcutter who attained enlightenment in a flash, he became the Sixth Patriarch of Chinese Zen, and is regarded as the founder of the "Sudden Enlightenment" school.<br />
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4.生活的艺术是对现代世界令人眼花缭乱的节奏的一种讽刺、诙谐的解毒剂。<br />
The Importance of Living is a wry, witty antidote to the dizzying pace of the modern world.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The art of living is an ironic and witty antidote to the dazzling rhythm of the modern world.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。<br />
<br />
As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.<br />
<br />
Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。<br />
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Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.<br />
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Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。<br />
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In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.<br />
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In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。<br />
<br />
''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。<br />
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The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The traditional Silk Road started in the ancient Chinese capital of Chang'an, and reached the Mediterranean through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc., ending in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the intersection of the ancient Eastern and Western civilizations connecting Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative goods.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。<br />
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The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。<br />
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Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism to a certain extent, it did not make China prosperous and strong.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 《道德经》是中国古代哲学著作。又称《老子》，被道教作为重要经典收入道藏。共81章，分上、下篇。此刻通行本上篇言道，下篇言德。其中有不少和生活有关的处世哲理。<br />
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Tao Te Ching is an ancient Chinese philosophical work.Also known as Laozi, Taoism as an important classic into the Collection of Taoism. A total of 81 chapters, divided into the first and second. At this moment, the first text of the passage, the next text of virtue.There are a lot of life related philosophy.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，成书于战国前期。全书共20篇492章，以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record their words and deeds. It was written in the early period of the Warring States Period. The book consists of 20 chapters, with quotations as the main body and narration as the auxiliary body, which mainly reflects the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and The Confucian school.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 慧能俗姓卢，原籍河北范阳（今北京大兴）。他的父亲贬官到了岭南新州（今广东新兴），生下了慧能。慧能年轻时父亲去世，家境贫寒，靠打柴卖柴来养活母亲。<br />
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Hui Neng was born in Fanyang, Hebei province (now Daxing, Beijing).His father moved to New South Wales in the Lingnan region and gave birth to Huineng. When Huineng was young, her father died and her family was poor, so she sold firewood to support her mother.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 林语堂早年留学美国、德国，获哈佛大学文学硕士，莱比锡大学语言学博士。回国后在清华大学、北京大学、厦门大学任教。1945年赴新加坡筹建南洋大学，任校长。曾任联合国教科文组织美术与文学主任、国际笔会副会长等职。<br />
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Lin Yutang studied in the United States and Germany in his early years. He received his MA from Harvard University and his PhD in Linguistics from the University of Leipzig.After returning to China, he taught in Tsinghua University, Peking University and Xiamen University. In 1945, he went to Singapore to establish Nanyang University and became its president.He has served as director of Fine Arts and Literature of UNESCO and vice President of the International Pen Association.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.《道德经》内容涵盖哲学、伦理学、政治学、军事学等诸多学科，被后人尊奉为治国、齐家、修身、为学的宝典。它对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。<br />
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Tao Te Ching covers philosophy, ethics, political science, military science and many other disciplines, and is respected as a treasure of governing the country, regulating the family, cultivating self-cultivation and learning. It has a profound influence on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, and embodies a world outlook and outlook on life of ancient Chinese.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。<br />
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The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the Late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius set up a lecture platform, its main content had been initially created--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br />
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The text mainly records Huineng's life story and teachings. According to the theory of "self nature is pure", it advocates the basic ideas of "find one’s ture self" and "insight into Buddhism". The thought of ''Tanjing'' played an important role in the development of Zen.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.本书是一种私人的供状，供认我自己的思想和生活所得的经验。我不想发表客观意见，也不想创立不朽真理。我实在瞧不起自许的客观哲学。<br />
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This book is a personal confession of my own thoughts and experiences. I don't want to be objective and create immortal truth because I really despise the objective philosophy of self promise.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。<br />
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The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.<br />
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As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.<br />
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3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。<br />
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If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.<br />
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If you want to practice, you can get it at home, so you can't help but stay at the temple.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。<br />
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The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
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1-道德经，也被称为老子或老子，是中国传统文字，传统上被认为是公元前6世纪的圣人老子。文章的作者，撰写日期和编辑日期受到争议。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching, also known as Lao Tzu or Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.<br />
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The ''Tao Te Ching'', also known as Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-《论语》约写于公元前500年，传统上归功于孔子。这段文字是由他的学生们在他去世后三十到五十年的时间内写的。<br />
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The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his students over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.<br />
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''The Analects'', was written about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Analects'', was written in about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a period of time spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-大建会能，又称禅宗第六祖或禅宗第六祖，是中国禅宗早期历史中的半传奇人物，但却是中心人物。根据传统，他是一个没有受过教育的外行，在听到《金刚经》后突然醒悟。<br />
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Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhism. According to tradition he was an uneducated layman who suddenly attained awakening upon hearing the Diamond Sutra.<br />
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Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Zen, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Zen Buddhism. According to the tradition, he was an uneducated layman who suddenly awakened upon hearing the contents of ''Diamond Sutra''.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。<br />
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Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 07:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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According to UNESCO, ''the Tao Te Ching'' is the most widely translated cultural masterpiece in foreign languages after the ''Bible''.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。<br />
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Confucius was one of the most famous scholars in the society at that time. He was honored as "the sage of Heaven" and "the Wooden priest of Heaven" when he was alive. He was also honored as the sage of Confucius, the most holy, the most holy Teacher of Confucius, the most holy Master of Dacheng, the king of Wenxuan and the master of all ages by later rulers.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。<br />
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The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure and pure", it advocates the basic idea of "seeing nature with clear heart" and "becoming Buddha with enlightenment".--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来兮辞》，讲解了《圣经》故事，以及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月等等。<br />
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Lin yutang talked about in the book zhuangzi's indifferent, praised tao yuanming's leisurely, read the "I'm going home!", explained the bible stories, and how the Chinese tea, how do drinkers' wager game, how to view mountain, how to play water, how to look at the cloud, how to guide, how to grow flowers, birds, snow, rain, song of the wind, to month, and so on.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.法律制度是治国者统治人民的工具，是统治者为了保障自身的利益与维持社会秩序建构的国家机器，所以老子极力反对这些措施与法令制度。<br />
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The legal system is the ruler's tool for ruling the people, and is the state machine constructed by the ruler to protect his own interests and maintain social order. Therefore, Laozi strongly opposed these measures and decrees.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》是中国读书人的基础语言，并影响着全社会的思维结构。 中国文化是儒、道、佛三教的合流，但是，这三教在中国文化中的地位决不是三足鼎立的，儒家文化绝对是中国文化的主流，从汉代开始，它就是无可争议的主流意识形态。<br />
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The Analects is the basic language of Chinese scholars and influences the thinking structure of the whole society. Chinese culture is an amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. However, these three religions are by no means a triumvirate in Chinese culture; Confucianism is definitely the mainstream of Chinese culture, and it has been the undisputed dominant ideology since the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.在我国佛教的发展历史上，惠能可以说是影响最大的高僧。南北朝初期达摩祖师入中土，开创禅宗。<br />
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In the history of Buddhism in China, the Huineng can be said to be the most influential monk. At the beginning of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Dharma entered China and started Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》一书，是汇集了许多中西思想家的思想, 再经过林语堂深思熟虑，书写自己的观念与真理的书。<br />
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''The Art of Living'' is a book that brings together the thoughts of many Chinese and Western thinkers, and then, after Lin Yutang's careful consideration, he writes his own concepts and truths.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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1.虽然丝绸之路是沿线各国共同促进经贸发展的产物，但很多人认为，中国的张骞两次通西域，开辟了中外交流的新纪元。从此，这条路线被作为“国道”踩了出来，各国使者、商人、传教士等沿着张骞开通的道路，来往络绎不绝。<br />
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The Silk Road is the product of joint economic and trade development of countries along the route, but many people think that Zhang Qian’s traveling to the West for two times launched a new era for China and foreign exchanges. Since then, this route was deemed as “international route” as envoys, merchants and missionaries came and went along the route opened by Zhang Qian.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.通过海上丝绸之路，中国还传播着民族工艺和儒道思想，对"海上丝路"沿线国家和地区以及欧洲各地产生不同程度的影响，甚至掀起了"中国热"。其中，瓷器和茶叶对世界有着很大的影响。<br />
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China spread its national craft, Confucianism and Taoism through the Maritime Silk Road, impacting countries along the route and European regions of varying degrees and even created “China fever”. Among them, porcelains and Tea have great influence upon the world.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。<br />
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Because of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people faced the fate of losing their country and families. Thus many scholars started to learn from western countries more positively and comprehensively, and a number of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a great amount of knowledge of natural science and social science and asked political reforms.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。京师同文馆、上海广方言馆以及江南制造局的译书馆，是当时翻译西方的中心。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of The Westernization Movement, the development of culture and publishing reached an unprecedented level. The Tongwenguan in Beijing, the Guangfangyanguan in Shanghai and the Yishuguan of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau were the center of translating western works. The translation of books has gone through a process from purely Western scientific and technical works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences and humanities, with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。<br />
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When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.<br />
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2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”<br />
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It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。<br />
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After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.<br />
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4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。<br />
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The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most translated and published cultural masterpiece into foreign languages, except for the Bible.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。<br />
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The Analects covers politics, education, literature, philosophy, and the principles of living in the world. As early as the late Spring and Autumn period, when Confucius set up a forum to teach, the main content of the Analects was already in its infancy.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《六祖坛经》记载惠能一生得法传法的事迹及启导门徒的言教,内容丰富,文字通俗,是研究禅宗思想渊源的重要依据。<br />
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The Sutra of Hui-neng is a richly written account of Hui-neng's life and teachings of his disciples, also working as an important basis for studying the origins of Zen’s thought.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 读书使人得到一种优雅和风味，这就是读书的整个目的。读书并不是要“改进心智”，若是如此，一切读书的乐趣便丧失净尽了。<br />
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4. Reading gives one a grace and flavor, and that is the whole purpose of reading. Reading is not to "improve the mind"; if it were, all the pleasure of reading would be lost.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading gives people an elegance and flavor, which is the whole purpose of reading.Reading is not meant to " improve the mind "; if so, all the pleasure of reading is lost.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
1.老子说：“上善若水”-—水具有最高的善。老子以水来作比喻，突出他的“不争”哲学思想，与恶意争斗的丛林法则相区别。<br />
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1.The highest good is like water, according to Laozi. By making a comparison with water, the ancient philosopher stressed the idea of “not to strive” which stands in stark contrast with the law of the jungle marked by malicious rivalry. <br />
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2.孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。<br />
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2.Confucius revised history books, wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, and organized ancient texts, which contributed to the development of the Chinese culture. After his death, his students collected his sayings into a book:''the Analects of Confucius''.<br />
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3. 道可道,非常道;名可名,非常名.<br />
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3.The way that can be told of is not an unvarying names;The names that can be named are not unvarying names.<br />
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4.林语堂(1894—1976)，原名玉堂，福建省龙溪县人。现代散文家、小说家，曾留学美国、德国，获哲学博士学位。1922年回国后，在北京大学、北京女子师范大学任教。曾是鲁迅主持的《语丝》撰稿人。<br />
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4.Lin Yutang (1894 -- 1976), formerly known as Yutang, was born in Longxi County, Fujian Province.He is a modern essayist, novelist, and has studied abroad in the United States, Germany, and a doctor in philosophy.After returning to China in 1922, he taught in Peking University and Beijing Women's Normal University.He used to be a writer of Threads hosted by Lu Xun.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。<br />
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1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。<br />
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2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。<br />
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3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。<br />
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4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion . According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most popular translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.<br />
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2.《论语》中的第一句话就是“学而时习之，不亦说乎？”可见，孔子狠强调学用结合、学以致用、言行相符。<br />
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The opening sentence of The Analects of Confucius says, “It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired.” From here we see that Confucius emphasized the integration of learning with application and the consistence of words and actions.<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。<br />
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The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. The ideas of the Tanjing played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra".<br />
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4.1939年，林语堂在美国纽约的世界笔会上发表了一篇《希特勒与魏忠贤》的演讲。他说，当今德国人有人把希特勒比为耶稣，由此他想起中国明朝有一位读书人倡议一说，称颂魏忠贤与孔夫子应当有同样的地位。<br />
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In 1939, Lin Yutang made a speech entitled “Hitler and Wei Zhongxian” at a PEN meeting held in New York City. reminded him of a Chinese scholar of the Ming Dynasty, who advocated that Wei Zhongxian, the then dictatorial chief palace eunuch, be ranked as equal of Confucius--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。<br />
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Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。<br />
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The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Sutra of Hui-neng, the only Chinese Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。<br />
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In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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In the book, Lin Yutang talks about Zhuangzi's indifference, praises Tao Yuanming's leisure, reads the song of returning home, and explains the story of the Bible. He talks about how Chinese people drink tea, how to drink, how to watch mountains, how to play with water, how to see clouds, how to learn from stones, how to raise flowers, keep birds, watch snow, listen to rain, recite wind, and play with the moon, and so on.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
1.丝绸之路全程，从西安经安西、喀什噶尔、撒马尔罕和塞流西亚，直至推罗，直线距离是4200英里，如果加上沿途绕弯的地方，总共约有6000英里，相当于赤道的四分之一。<br />
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The Silk Road runs from Xi'an through Anxi, Kashgar, Samarkand and Seleucia to Tyre at a straight distance of 4200 miles, or about 6000 miles, or a quarter of the equator, if combined with the curving.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是指古代中国与世界其他地区进行经济文化交流交往的海上通道。2000 多年前，一条以中国徐闻港、合浦港等港口为起点的海上丝绸之路成就了世界性的贸易网络。<br />
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Maritime Silk Road refers to ancient China and the rest of the world for economic and cultural exchanges of the sea channel.More than 2000 years ago, a maritime Silk Road, which started with ports such as China's Xuwen Port and Hepu Port, became a worldwide trading network.<br />
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3.随着西学大举东来，国内知识分子的大力鼓吹，使得妇女问题开始受到社会的重视。<br />
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With the western learning coming to the east in a large scale, the domestic intellectuals advocated vigorously, so that women's issues began to receive social attention.<br />
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4.自全球化进程不断加快以来，中国教育已无可避免地成为世界教育的一部分。西学的存在,对我国教育界的认识论和理论体系，带来了什么挑战和启示呢?<br />
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Since the accelerating process of globalization, China's education has inevitably become a part of the world's education.What challenges and enlightenment does the existence of western learning bring to the epistemology and theoretical system of education in China? <br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
1.以“道”解释宇宙万物的演变，即“道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物”，“道”乃“夫莫之命而常自然”，因而“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”。<br />
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He used "Tao" to explain the evolution of all things in the universe, that is, "Tao generates one, two, two generates three, three generates all things", "Tao" is "Fu Mo's life is always natural", so "man follows earth, earth follows heaven, heaven follows Tao, Tao follows nature".--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成;孔子去世以后，他的弟子和再传弟子代代传授他的言论，并逐渐将这些口头记诵的语录言行记录下来。<br />
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The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the late spring and Autumn period when Confucius set up an altar to give lectures, its main content had been initially created; after Confucius died, his disciples and his disciples taught him his words from generation to generation, and gradually recorded these oral quotations, words and deeds.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。直接契证觉性，便是顿悟。他说自心既不攀缘善恶，也不可沉空守寂，即须广学多闻，识自本心，达诸佛理。<br />
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Huineng's Zen is based on Dinghui. He thinks that consciousness is there and worry is not. The direct evidence of consciousness is epiphany. He said that the self mind should neither climb up to good and evil, nor sink into silence. That is to say, it is necessary to learn a lot, to know the self mind, and to reach all Buddhist principles.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.只有快乐的哲学，才是真正深湛的哲学；西方那些严肃的哲学理论，我想还不曾开始了解人生的真义哩。 在我看来，哲学的唯一效用是叫我们对人生抱一种比一般人较轻松较快乐的态度。——林语堂《生活的艺术》<br />
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Only the philosophy of happiness is really profound philosophy; I don't think those serious western philosophical theories have begun to understand the true meaning of life. In my opinion, the only effect of philosophy is to make us have a more relaxed and happy attitude towards life than ordinary people. ——The Importance of Living by Lin Yutang--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已；皆知善之为善，斯不善已。<br />
It is because every one under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty that the idea of ugliness exists. And equally if every one recognized virtue as virtue this would merely create fresh conceptions of wickedness.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.有朋自远方来，不亦说乎？<br />
Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quaters?--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br />
The Sutra of Huineng mainly recorded life stories and teachings of Huineng. The thoughts in it played an important part in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适。<br />
Ling Yutang talked about Zhuangzi’s indifference to fame and wealth, and spoke highly of Tao Yuanming’s leisure.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
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Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。<br />
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In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br />
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The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。<br />
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In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响.<br />
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"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, religion, etc.<br />
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"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion, etc.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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"The Analects of Confucius" is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.<br />
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''The Analects of Confucius''is a collection of quotations compiled byConfucius' disciples and their retransmitters to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《坛经》是禅宗的主要经典之一,主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教.<br />
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The Tantra is one of the main Zen classics, mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.<br />
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The ''Tantra'' is one of the main classics of Zen , mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，中等文化的读者都能看懂，这也是他探索的结果。<br />
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Lin Yutang's translation features are easy to understand and can be understood by readers of intermediate culture. This is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lin Yutang's translation is characterized by its fluency and comprehensiveness, which is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。<br />
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The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.老子生于春秋战国时期，当时的环境是周朝势微，各诸侯为了争夺霸主地位，战争不断。严酷的动乱与变迁，让老子目睹到民间疾苦，作为周朝的守藏史，于是他提出了治国安民的一系列主张。<br />
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Laozi was born in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. At that time, the Zhou Dynasty was in a weak state. As the official historian of Zhou Dynasty, Lao Zi put forward a series of propositions of governing the country and keeping the people safe.<br />
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2.作为儒家经典的《论语》，其内容博大精深，包罗万象，《论语》的思想主要有三个既各自独立又紧密相依的范畴：伦理道德范畴——仁，社会政治范畴——礼，认识方法论范畴——中庸。<br />
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As a Confucian classic, the Analects of Confucius has a broad and profound content and is all-embracing. The thoughts of the Analects of Confucius mainly consist of three independent and closely related categories: ethical and moral category -- benevolence, social and political category -- rites, and cognitive methodology category -- the doctrine of the mean.<br />
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3.慧能偈曰：<br />
菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。<br />
本来无一物，何处惹尘埃？<br />
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My stanza read: <br />
There is no Bodhi-tree, <br />
Nor there’s a mirror bright. <br />
Since all is void in fact,<br />
Say, where can dust alight?<br />
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4.幽默大师林语堂以人生优游者的独特视角，诠释中国人“生活的艺术”，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。<br />
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Lin Yutang, a humorist, interprets the "art of life" of The Chinese people from the unique perspective of a good traveler in life, showing a unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life and intelligent life.<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.《道德经》是中国古代先秦诸子分家前的一部著作，是道家哲学思想的重要来源。<br />
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1.The Tao Te Ching is a work before the division of pre-Qin scholars in ancient China, and is an important source of Taoist philosophy.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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2.The Analects is mainly based on the quotation style, supplemented by the narrative style, which more concentratedly reflects the political propositions, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。<br />
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3.The scriptures mainly record the life deeds and teachings of Huineng. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure", it promotes the basic idea of "understanding the mind and seeing the nature" and "understanding to become a Buddha". The idea of "Tan Sutra" played an important role in the development of Zen. This is the only one that is honored as the "Sutra" in Chinese Buddhist works.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的完美生活方式的范本、快意人生的典型，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。<br />
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4Lin Yutang appealed to the Chinese people's open mindedness, Tao Qingqianxing's lifestyle and romantic and elegant oriental sentiment, and he presented a model of perfect lifestyle and a model of happy life that can be imitated to Westerners. Shows the unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life, and wise life.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC).<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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《道德经》与中医渊源颇深, 其中许多论点与中医理论有相通之处。<br />
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Tao Te Ching is deeply connected with Traditional Chinese medicine, and many of its arguments have something in common with Chinese medicine theories.<br />
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《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行。<br />
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The Analects is one of the classic works of Confucianism. It is a collection of opinion records of prose writings, mainly in the form of quotations and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples.<br />
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《坛经》是佛学中国化、大众化最为成功的典型之一。<br />
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The Sutra of Hui-neng is one of the most successful representative of sinicization and popularization of Buddhism.<br />
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其实,生活于我无意义,快乐地过好每一天最为重要。应该说,这种感受得益于林语堂的《生活的艺术》一书。<br />
In fact, while life is meaningless, what matters to me is leading a happy life everyday. This comprehension should be credited to the The Importance of Living written by Lin Yutang. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:34, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.《道德经》不仅在中国影响深远而广泛，而且漂洋过海，传遍了世界五大洲，深受外围人的青眯，引起浓厚的学习兴趣和研究热情。他们赞誉《道德经》为“东方智慧的结晶”。当代西方流行广泛的一句话，就是老子是国际性的，目前研究老子思想已成为一种国际性的文化现象。<br />
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''The Tao Te Ching'' not only has a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''the Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Oigo’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为儒家最经典和最受欢迎的著作，《论语》不仅是中国传统最核心的作品之一，而且是中国人伦理道德标准和行为准则的核心。《论语》中蕴含的儒家思想是中华民族的宝贵财富。自从16世纪末以来，《论语》被中西方学者源源不断地翻译，并且传播到世界各地。<br />
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As the most classical and popular works of Confucianism, ''the Analects'' is not only one of the core works of Chinese tradition, but also the core of Chinese ethical standards and codes of conduct. The Confucian thought contained in ''the Analects'' is the precious wealth of the Chinese nation. Since the end of the 16th century, ''the Analects'' has been continuously translated by Chinese and Western scholars and spread all over the world.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《慧能经》不仅是研究惠能思想的重要资料,而且是具有中国特色的佛教禅宗一派的重要经典,在中国佛教思想史、哲学史上具有深远的影响。<br />
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''The Sutra of Huineng'' is not only an important material to study Huineng’s thought, but also an important classic of Zen Buddhism with Chinese characteristics. It has a far-reaching influence on the history of Chinese Buddhist thought and philosophy.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》是一本与你畅谈如何听风赏月的家常闲聊，又是一本关乎生活态度甚至生活智慧的严肃论文。林语堂从生活、家庭、文化、旅行、思想、宗教等方面探讨人必须学会享受生命。<br />
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''The Importance of Living'' is a book about how to feel the wind, enjoy the moon. It is also a serious essay about life attitude and even life wisdom. Lin Yutang analyzed from the aspects of life, family, culture, travel, thought, religion and so on. Then he drew a conclusion that people must learn to enjoy life.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=11949420201221 cult2020-12-28T04:00:21Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。 这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br />
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3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。 同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。<br />
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The traditional Silk Road starts in Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea via the Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria, ending in Rome, a total length of 6,440 kilometres.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, making it the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.此时的西学传入，主要以传教士和一些中国人对西方科学著作的翻译为主。<br />
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The introduction of Western learning at this time was dominated by the translation of Western scientific works by missionaries and some Chinese.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br />
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The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br />
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During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br />
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Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br />
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The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。<br />
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The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.<br />
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The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。<br />
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The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.<br />
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公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders. <br />
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郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.<br />
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西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled. <br />
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中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
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A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。<br />
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An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。<br />
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From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。<br />
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Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。<br />
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Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。<br />
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Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。<br />
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During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。<br />
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The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
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1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns. <br />
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令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India. <br />
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人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression. <br />
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这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.<br />
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到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".<br />
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2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。<br />
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The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.<br />
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3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。<br />
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The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。<br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of <br />
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.<br />
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丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。<br />
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2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .<br />
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海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。<br />
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3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.<br />
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自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br />
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The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br />
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The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br />
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Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br />
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The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。<br />
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People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。<br />
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In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.<br />
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During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。<br />
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The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.<br />
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The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。<br />
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br />
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By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br />
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In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br />
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Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br />
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The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。 <br />
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Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。<br />
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Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。<br />
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Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。<br />
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The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
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Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。<br />
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Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。<br />
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Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。<br />
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The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。<br />
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In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
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After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br />
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The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br />
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In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".<br />
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3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br />
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2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br />
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3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br />
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4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br />
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Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br />
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Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
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The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举， 对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。 晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。<br />
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Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。<br />
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The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。<br />
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The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。<br />
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The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br />
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Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br />
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The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br />
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Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br />
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br />
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br />
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At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br />
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br />
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During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.<br />
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3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。<br />
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3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。<br />
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The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.<br />
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2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。<br />
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China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that. <br />
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3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。<br />
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In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。<br />
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4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。<br />
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Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。<br />
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The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br />
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1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br />
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Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br />
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4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。<br />
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After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。<br />
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Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。<br />
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The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。<br />
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Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。 <br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。<br />
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively. <br />
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2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸 换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。<br />
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.<br />
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3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。<br />
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。<br />
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The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.<br />
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4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。<br />
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Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。 其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。<br />
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The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br />
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The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。<br />
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In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。<br />
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In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。<br />
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The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。<br />
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。<br />
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。<br />
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In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。<br />
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After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries. <br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。<br />
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In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.<br />
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4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。<br />
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In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".<br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
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Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.<br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.<br />
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4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。<br />
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The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。<br />
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After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.<br />
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4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
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In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
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1.Zhang Qian made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and even to Europe. From then on, the Chinese used this channel to sell silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia. At the same time introduce gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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2.Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China, the largest number of ships and seafarers, and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea expeditions in the history of the world before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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3.The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the academic thoughts in Europe and the United States during the two periods of the late Ming and early Qing and the late Qing and the early Republic. Incoming.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的内容之一是创办新式学校，选送留学生出国深造，培养翻译人才、军事人才和科技人才。1862年在北京设立的京师同文馆，就是中国最早的官办新式学校。<br />
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One of the contents of the Westernization Movement was to establish new schools, select and send overseas students to study abroad, and train translators, military talents and scientific and technological talents. The Jingshi Tongwenguan, established in Beijing in 1862, was the earliest government-run new school in China.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。<br />
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The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.<br />
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郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。 <br />
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The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.<br />
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明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。<br />
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In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.<br />
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洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。<br />
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The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。<br />
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The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。<br />
<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
==Zubareva, Ekaterina==<br />
<br />
1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.<br />
<br />
今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。 他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.<br />
<br />
郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。 然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.<br />
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随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.<br />
<br />
到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118058History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:36:21Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Conclusion */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
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*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 10<br />
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SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
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TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
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English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
<br />
Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
<br />
Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
<br />
Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
<br />
Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
<br />
Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
<br />
Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
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===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
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The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118050History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:32:53Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
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孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
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Separation on the River Kiang<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
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此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
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挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
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Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
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White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
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And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
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Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
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as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
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Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
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Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
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However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
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What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
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Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
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送友人入蜀<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
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山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
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芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
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升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
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Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
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Sheer as the mountains.<br />
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The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
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Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
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at his horse’s bridle.<br />
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Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
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Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
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And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
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in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
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Men’s fates are already set,<br />
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There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
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In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
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Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
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However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
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In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
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By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
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The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
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登金陵凤凰台<br />
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(唐)李白<br />
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凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
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吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
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三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
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总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
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The City of Choan<br />
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THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
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The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
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Flowers and grass<br />
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Cover over the dark path<br />
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Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
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The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
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Are now the base of old hills.<br />
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The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
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The isle of White Heron<br />
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splits the two streams apart. <br />
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Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
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And I can not see Choan afar<br />
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And I am sad.<br />
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In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
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Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
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=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
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Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
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=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
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Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
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Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
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Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
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Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
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Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
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Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
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Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
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Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
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Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118048History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:30:12Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
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<br />
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<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
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［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
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［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118046History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:27:40Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics */</p>
<hr />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
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As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
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*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
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*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
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*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
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*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
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*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
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*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
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*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
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*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
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*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 10<br />
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SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
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TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
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English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
<br />
Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
<br />
Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
<br />
Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
<br />
Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
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===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
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The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
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Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
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The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
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===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
<br />
［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
<br />
［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
<br />
［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118039History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:24:26Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
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Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
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However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
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What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
<br />
Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
<br />
Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
<br />
Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
<br />
Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
<br />
Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
<br />
Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
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===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
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The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11803320201215 cultexam 42020-12-21T10:19:19Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Milk Tea - Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼 MTI英语笔译 202070080621==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time. (Zhang Lu 2013,25) <br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
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The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)<br />
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Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion. (Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
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During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
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Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
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There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salutes to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility. (Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
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Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color. (Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园<br />
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''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》<br />
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Rainbow Bridge 虹桥<br />
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Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁<br />
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Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
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chrysanthemum 菊花<br />
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Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾<br />
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Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火<br />
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Cockfight 斗鸡<br />
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Women’s Polo 女子马球<br />
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Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?<br />
<br />
2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?<br />
<br />
3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5. Which dynasty does the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?<br />
<br />
6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?<br />
<br />
7. What are the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?<br />
<br />
8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. <br />
<br />
3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4. Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5. Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8. Baogong Salutes to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, and Women’s Polo.<br />
<br />
===References=== <br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥 [Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge]. ''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama (07) 62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化 [Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩'' Brilliance (04) 16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展 [Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science (8) 10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术 [Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学'' Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute (06) 10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》 [Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City （Z2) 13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究 [Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal (05) 23-27.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
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Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.(Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
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Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)<br />
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Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik2020, Cao Saina, 2020,5）<br />
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Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
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Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
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Preparation <br />
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Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）<br />
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Applying wax<br />
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Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）<br />
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Dip-dyeing<br />
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Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）<br />
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Dewaxing<br />
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After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
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The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）<br />
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===Patterns===<br />
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From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)<br />
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Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
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Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）<br />
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The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.<br />
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Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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batik 蜡染<br />
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laxie 蜡缬<br />
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huixie 灰缬<br />
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jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
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jiaxie 夹缬<br />
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Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
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The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
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The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
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single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
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multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
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Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
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Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
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Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
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Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
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Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
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anil 木蓝属植物<br />
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leguminous豆科<br />
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safflower红花 <br />
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madder茜草<br />
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yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
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turmeric姜黄<br />
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Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
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===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
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Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
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2. When did batik appear and become popular?<br />
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Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
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Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
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Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
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6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
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When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
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7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
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Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染. (2020). https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Liao Li. 廖利.(2012). 蜡染艺术 [Batik Art] 世界大学城 http://www.worlduc.com/blog2012.aspx?bid=13678859<br />
<br />
Cao Saina曹赛娜. (2010). 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 [The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method]. “ 中国美术学院” China Art College 5.<br />
<br />
Li Xing, 李欣. (2020). 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 [Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou]. “ 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集” Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 3.<br />
<br />
Liu Haili刘海粟. (1986). 贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展 [The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou]. “贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版)” Guizhou Normal University Journal(Social and Scientific Edition) (01):1-6.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
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Long Weapons <br />
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The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.(China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009).<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
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The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
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Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.(Jwing-Ming Yang ,1999).<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] 百度百科.<br />
<br />
[2] 沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
[3] "''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
[4] Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Penjing-Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻 Student No.202070080624 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
<br />
===A. Categories===<br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories：<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.<br />
<br />
===B. History===<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
===C. Techniques and Care===<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===D. In Other Culture===<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
*百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
*搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
*Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Douyin (Tik Tok) Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 MTI 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ==== <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)<br />
<br />
In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ==== <br />
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)<br />
<br />
2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019) <br />
<br />
====C. Popularity and Effects ==== <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok: <br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 08:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会<br />
<br />
Mental health 心理健康<br />
<br />
===Questions ===<br />
1. What is Tik Tok？<br />
<br />
2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?<br />
<br />
4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
=== Answers===<br />
<br />
1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing. <br />
<br />
4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Carissa Brones. (2019) Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle<br />
<br />
* Hans Tung. (2018) 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. <br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun 梁全存. (2019). “抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok]. Beijing: Beijing Jiao Tong University 北京交通大学.<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. (2020). 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究 [Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok].''中国商论''China Business, (22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. (2019). 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红 [Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective] .''现代营销(信息版)'', Modern Marketing (Information Edition), (06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Patricia Moloney Figliola. (2020). TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues. <br />
<br />
* WANG N. (2019). Data story of Tiktok. <br />
<br />
* Wu W. (2017). Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture. Routledge.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. (2019). Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms.<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, (2019). Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willingness and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Li Bai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectively?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 202070080626 MTI 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.(Su, 2020)<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.（Qing, 2020）<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.（百度百科，连城）<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.(Xu, 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]苏盛祺.论《聊斋志异》“狐嫁士人”故事的民间故事母题[J].汉字文化,2020(19):51-52+64.<br />
<br />
[2]青文婷.浅论蒲松龄《聊斋志异》人文生态观的现实意义[J].青年文学家,2020(29):63-64.<br />
<br />
[3]苏盛祺.《聊斋志异》“狐嫁士人”故事中的狐女与士人形象分析[J].汉字文化,2020(20):63-64+69.<br />
<br />
[4]徐菲.浅析《聊斋志异》中婴宁的人物形象[J].汉字文化,2020(20):65-66.<br />
<br />
[5]百度百科:连城<br />
<br />
==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. <br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. <br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation.<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). <br />
<br />
Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). <br />
<br />
Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
*Luo Yue. 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama 13: 29-30. <br />
<br />
*Wang Huaqing. 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design 132-133 <br />
<br />
*Xiao Yuanjin. 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
*Baike.Baidu. 百度百科. 川剧变脸 [Face Changing in Sichuan Opera]. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%B7%9D%E5%89%A7%E5%8F%98%E8%84%B8/63484 <br />
<br />
*China Highlights: Culture - [Magical Face Changing in Sichuan Opera]. https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm <br />
<br />
*Global Times: Life - [Sichuan opera from Sichuan Province]. https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, windows at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural component-window, affects not only the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, but also the enchantment of a building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable constituent part in their lives. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese windows developed a unique style of its own, and was fundamentally different from any other school of architecture in the world. Windows has always been the object of humanity's pursuit of beauty. More than two thousands years ago, Laozi made a brilliant exposition on this: "In order to build a house, although we must establish solid walls, we must also provide doors and windows; so both the impenetrable and penetrable are essential to useful building." What tis meant was that what was visible was merely the physical setting, but what really made a structure useful was its invisible space. (Classic of Way and Its Powers, 1996, 56) <br />
<br />
This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in windows in detail. Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in different dynasties in China. Lattice is also called geyan to folklore(格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2006, 47)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The three-crossing-nodes lattice. [http://image80.360doc.com/DownloadImg/2014/12/0721/47845540_1] ]] [[File: Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows-2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2. Click [http://image80.360doc.com/DownloadImg/2014/12/0721/47845540_2] for original source]] <br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. This kind of lattice is the most luxuriant and delicate both in its structure and color scheme. Therefore, it is obviously costly and time-consuming in production and ordinary people are unable to afford it. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5-1.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.（Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 300)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, with all things are reviving and full of vitality. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and merry wishes will be realized immediately. This kind of lattice is often applied in private gardens, because it blends well with the peaceful sceneries and always renders silent hope and comforting to whoever have a walk there. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. Therefore, this formal lattice is often seen in houses of scholars or officials, a reminder that their manner and speech should be well-disciplined no matter in the public or in private. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people living in cramped quarters have become almost oblivious to the aesthetics of their dwellings. The windows serve no other function than that of ventilation and lighting. In contrast, scholars or even ordinary peoples in ancient China living in dilapidated houses were obviously superior to us in terms of their taste and the efforts they made in improving the residential environment. I consider this is one of the greatest regrets in our modern life and by writing this paper, I aim to arouse people's appreciation and enhance understanding of the splendid architectural culture created by our ancestors and let them be our silent companies to enrich our lives. (Ma Weidu, 2006, 9-10)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia, Yuelu Academy)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)<br />
<br />
Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633 MTI英语笔译==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussions in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view is that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in ''The History of Song Dynasty'' (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believe that jiaozi developes from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” is regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialize in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there is another opinion that it's the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promotes the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin is that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Traditional Chinese makeup[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
*Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
*Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Blush[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]]]<br />
<br />
*Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
<br />
*Lipsctick<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Lipstick[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]]]<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
*Eyebrows<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Eyebrows[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]]]<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Tang Dynasty make up[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]]]<br />
<br />
A.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
B.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
C.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
D.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
* https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html<br />
<br />
* https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html<br />
<br />
* https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3<br />
<br />
* https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html<br />
<br />
* http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 <br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html <br />
<br />
*《齐民要术》作者：贾思勰<br />
<br />
* Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
* 齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
* 胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
* 唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
* 黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_cult&diff=11727820201214 cult2020-12-21T04:02:13Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1.儒家精神有其相对稳定、不易改变的一面。它不完全受社会形态的影响，有较为普遍的适应性，可以跨越不同社会历史时期，被不同政治制度、不同经济形态和不同文化背景下的人们所接受。<br />
<br />
The spirit of Confucianism is relatively stable and unchangeable. It is not entirely influenced by social forms and has a more universal adaptability, and can be accepted across different socio-historical periods and by people in different political systems, different economic forms and different cultural backgrounds.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Confucianism is relatively stable and unchangeable in some degree as it does not easily affected by different societies and has a quality of adaptability. On the long river of various social history, Confucianism has been well-accepted by people from different political, economic and cultural backgrounds.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.道家从维护个人利益的角度出发，在经济理论、社会实践方面创立了“人本”的思想观点，主张通过维护每个人的个人利益来达到社会的和谐繁荣。<br />
<br />
From the perspective of protecting the interests of the individual, Taoism has created a "humanistic" ideology in economic theory and social practice, advocating that social harmony and prosperity can be achieved by protecting the individual interests of each person.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of defending individual interests, Taoism has created a "humanistic" ideology in economic theory and social practices, advocating that social harmony and prosperity can be achieved by safeguarding the interests of every citizen.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
1.儒家思想精髓在于它的社会伦理思想，正是封建社会伦理观从国家统治阶级的高度期望出发将人们生活现实中的行为规范用通俗的语言规范起来，让农民成为社会道德思想的奴隶，而这种封建伦理观作为封建统治阶级上层建筑社会意识中的最广泛影响治理社会群众基础的核心，从而完成对国家社会双重治理的理想效果。<br />
<br />
The essence of Confucianism lies in its social ethical thought. It is the thought of feudal society that regulates the behavior norms of people’s lives in popular language from the high expectations of the country’s ruling class, making the peasants be enslaved to social ethics. As the core of the social consciousness of the feudal ruling class superstructure, which has the most extensive influence on governing the society and the people, it has achieved the ideal effect of dual governance of the state and society. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.道教把生命看得极为重要，修道就是要长生不死，主张通过修炼来延长生命的长度，提高生命存在的质量，以达到生命的永恒。道教主张以清净无为、不争寡欲的态度对待世俗生活，以“我命在我不在天”的精神进行修炼，通过各种道术修炼，与道合一，成为长生不死的神仙。<br />
<br />
Taoism regards life as extremely important and practicing Taoism is to become immortal. It advocates to extend the length of life and improve the quality of life by practicing, so as to achieve eternity of life. Taoism holds an attitude of purity and non-contentiousness towards worldly life, and cultivation in the spirit of "I am the master of my fate", so that through various Taoist practices, one can unite with the Tao and become an immortal deity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
1.孔子生而七漏，头上圩顶，而又因其母曾祷于尼丘山，故名“丘”，字“仲尼”。<br />
<br />
Confucius was born terribly ugly with a bump on the head, and as his mother once prayed on Mount Niqiu for his birth, he is named “Qiu” with the word “Zhongni”. <br />
<br />
2.道家认为只有老百姓认可的平等才幸福，人们想要没有徭役租赋负担，“内足衣食之用，外无势利之争”的社会<br />
<br />
Taoism claims that only the sort of equality that the ordinary people recognized will bring true happiness. People are yearn to be free from labour rent and taxes and to live in a society with adequate food and clothes and no struggle for power and gains.<br />
<br />
==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
<br />
1. It's generally believed that when Confucius was in his late 60s, he returned to his hometown Qufu in Shandong Province. For several years in his early 70s, he taught a group of disciples who later propagated his beliefs and developed their own philosophies. <br />
<br />
人们普遍认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。 在70年代初期的几年中，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了自己的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们通常认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。在七十多岁的前几年，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了他的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Consequently, many leaders of Taoism had gained great respects from the imperial governments. <br />
<br />
因此，许多道教领袖得到了帝王政府的尊敬。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，许多道教领袖都受到了朝政的尊敬。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
1. 孔子提出“有教无类”，认为人人都应该受教育。在教育实践中创立了灵活多样的教学方法，提倡“学”与“思”的结合、学习与复习的结合以及教与学的结合，讲求因材施教和启发式教学等等。<br />
<br />
Confucius maintained the idea that everyone has the right to be educated despite class differences. In teaching practice, Confucius adopted flexible teaching methods which involve the combinations of learning and thinking, learning and reviewing as well as teaching and learning. He strived for educating students in accordance with their aptitude and adopted a heuristic style of teaching.<br />
<br />
Confucius put forward "there is no kind of education," and believed that everyone should be educated. In educational practice, flexible and diverse teaching methods have been created, advocating the combination of "learning" and "thinking", the combination of learning and review, and the combination of teaching and learning, and emphasis on teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and heuristic teaching, etc.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. 道家强调自由、自然、修身养性，甚至追求永生。道教对中国文化的许多领域都产生了深刻而持久的影响，包括艺术、哲学、医学和美食，并在东亚地区广泛流传。<br />
<br />
Daoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation and even pursues immortality. Daoism has had a deep and lasting influence in many fields of Chinese culture, including the arts, philosophy, medicine, and cuisine. It has also spread widely throughout East Asia.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation, and even the pursuit of immortality. Taoism has had a profound and lasting influence on many areas of Chinese culture, including art, philosophy, medicine, and gastronomy, and it has spread widely in East Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
1.孔子的哲学思想强调个人美德和政治原则、和谐的社会秩序以及公正和真诚的社会环境。<br />
<br />
The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The philosophy of Confucius emphasizes on personal morality, political principles, harmonious social order, justice, and sincere social environment.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.老子是中国历史上伟大的哲学家、作家。他不仅是道家的创始人，也成为了道教中供奉的一位神祇。<br />
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Laozi is a great philosopher and writer in Chinese ancient history. He is not only the founder of philosophical Daoism, but also worshipped as a deity in religious Daoism. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Laozi, a great philosopher and writer in Chinese history, had not only became the founder of Taoism, but also a deity worshipped by Taoism.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.儒家思想以传统封建社会为物质承担者，传统封建社会以儒家思想为精神承担者，传统社会的瓦解，致使孔子圣人权威丧失。<br />
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The Confucianism takes traditional feudal society as material undertaker while the latter takes the former as sipiritual undertaker. Therefore, the disintegration of traditional society causes the Sage Confucius to lose his authority.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Confucianism takes the traditional feudal society as its material undertaker, while the traditional feudal society takes Confucianism as its spiritual undertaker. The collapse of the traditional society leads to the loss of Confucius’ authority.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:31, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道家作为一种思想流派，崇尚大道，主张“惟道是从、道法自然”，主要从事的是学术活动和政治文化活动，奉《道德经》、《庄子》、《黄帝四经》等为经典。<br />
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As a school of thought, Taoism advocates the great truth and follows the principle of nature. It is mainly for academic, political and cultural activities and regards Tao Te Ching,Chuang-tzu and Huang Di Si Jing as classics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism, a school of thought, advocates the great truth and follows the principle of nature. It mainly serves academic, political and cultural activities and regards Tao Te Ching, Chuang-tzu and Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor as classics.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:31, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
1、“儒学”、“儒家”、“儒教”这些概念要分清。儒学作为一种学说，儒家作为一个阶层，儒教作为一种信仰，三者需要区分开来。<br />
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We should clearly distinguish the three concepts ---- Confucianism, Confucianist, Confucian religion, among which Confucianism is a theory and Confucianist is a strata and Confucian religion is a religion. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concepts of "Confucianism", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" must be distinguished. Confucianism as a doctrine, Confucianism as a class, and Confucianism as a belief, the three need to be distinguished.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 08:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、在我国优秀传统文化中，道家思想蕴含了和谐理想、平等观念、诚信美德等诸多伦理智慧，这些思想很多都与社会主义核心价值观具有相通性，它们为社会主义核心价值观构筑了坚实的文化沃土。<br />
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In Chinese excellent traditional cultures, Taoism contains such ethics and wisdom as the desire for harmony, the idea of equality and the virtue of honesty, many of which have commonalities with the core values of socialism and have laid a solid cultural foundation for the core values of socialism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Chinese excellent traditional culture, Taoism contains many ethical wisdoms, such as the ideal of harmony, the concept of equality, and the virtue of honesty. Many of these ideas have similarities with the core socialist values. They have built a solid cultural fertile ground for the core socialist values.<br />
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In my country’s excellent traditional culture, Taoism contains many ethical wisdoms, such as the ideal of harmony, the concept of equality, and the virtue of honesty. Many of these ideas have similarities with the core socialist values. They have built a solid cultural fertile ground for the core socialist values.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 08:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
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1. Confucianism is the main ancient philosophy of China. It implicitly embodies key aspects of Chinese culture. Confucian beliefs have constantly changed and developed over the past 2,500 years. <br />
儒学是中国的主要古代哲学。 它隐含了中国文化的关键方面。在过去的2500年中，儒家信仰不断变化和发展。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. During its popularization since its birth, Taoism had long been a kind of high-level culture, and widely pursued by the upper-class society. <br />
道教自诞生之日起就一直是一种高级文化，并受到上层社会的广泛追捧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
1.儒学社会政治层面功能的形成和加强，同时也就减弱了儒学作为一般伦理道德修养和政治理想层面的作用。在原始儒学那里，它是通过道德教育、理想教育去启发出人们遵守道德规范、追求理想社会的自觉。<br />
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The formation and strengthening of the socio-political dimension of Confucianism simultaneously diminished its role as a general ethical and moral cultivation and political ideal. In primitive Confucianism, it is through moral education, ideal education to inspire people to abide by moral norms and pursue an ideal society.<br />
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2.在道教文化杂而多端的内容当中，有一个核心，就是道教神仙信仰。道教作为一个成熟的宗教，具有一套自己的神学理论，有一种能够吸引人们进行追求的宗教信仰目标。这种信仰就是，人可以通过努力追求而成为长生不死、功能广大的神仙。<br />
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Among the miscellaneous and multifaceted contents of Taoist culture, there is a core, which is the belief in Taoist gods and immortals. As a mature religion, Taoism has a set of theological theories and a religious goal that attracts people to pursue. This belief is that people can become immortal and functional deities through hard work.<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
1.春秋时期，老子集古圣先贤之大智慧。总结了古老的道家思想的精华，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。<br />
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During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi, through gathering the great wisdom of ancient sages and summarizing the essence of ancient Taoist thought, formed a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking that Taoist thought has formally taken shape.<br />
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2.儒家是孔子所创立、孟子所发展、荀子所集其大成，之后延绵不断，为历代儒客推崇，至今仍有一定生命力的学术流派。<br />
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Confucianism is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and collected by Xunzi. It has continued to be admired by Confucian scholars in the past and still has a certain vitality.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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1. 四书五经是儒家施行其儒学教化的重要教科书，中国古代文人科举做官的必读书。<br />
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The Four Books and The Five Classics are the most important textbooks for the Confucian scholars to disseminate the educational thoughts of the Confucian School and a must for ancient scholars who had to pass the imperial competitive examination to become government officials.<br />
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2.道，代表宇宙本体和法则的统一，高度的抽象性与普遍意义是它的特点。<br />
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Tao, which refers to the integration of the noumenon and rules of the cosmos, is characterized by its deep abstraction and universal significance.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Tao, representing the unity of the essence and laws of the universe, is characterized by its high degree of abstraction and universal significance.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
1. 孔子是我国古代伟大的思想家和教育家,儒家学派创始人,世界最著名的文化名人之一。孔子的言行思想主要载于语录体散文集《论语》。<br />
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Confucius was a great thinker of ancient China and educator, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.<br />
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Confucius is a great thinker and educator in ancient China, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教(或道教)是指各种相关的中国哲学传统和概念的英文名称。这些传统影响了东亚两千多年，有些还在国际上传播。道家的礼教和伦理强调 "道 "的三宝，即“慈、俭、让”。道家思想注重 "无为"、"人本"、"虚无"。无为常常被错误地翻译为（"无所作为"），这种错误由于非道家学者的翻译而广泛传播。道教强调人与自然的联系。道教认为，这种联系减少了对规则和秩序的需要，使人更好地理解世界。<br />
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Taoism (or Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (" action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort" ) spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. Wu wei is often incorrectly translated as ("non-action") and this error has propagated widely as a result of translations made by academics who are non practising Taoists. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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1.Although Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state, it never turned into an established religion with a church and priesthood.<br />
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尽管儒学成为中华民族的官方意识形态，但它从来没有发展成为具有教会和神职人员的宗教。<br />
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2.The Four Books form the basis of Confucianism.<br />
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这四本书构成了儒学的基础。<br />
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3.In education, Confucius upheld the theory that “in education, there is no class distinction.<br />
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在教育方面，孔子坚持“在教育中没有阶级区别的理论”。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在教育方面，孔子主张“有教无类。”--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
1.孔子是中国儒学的创始人。两千余年来，儒家思想对中国的影响不仅体政治、政治、文化等方面，也体每一个中国人的行为和思维方式之中。<br />
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Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of Confucianism on China is not only in politics, politics, culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.<br />
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Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of his Confucianism on China is not only in politics,culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教在世界宗教中是独一无二的，因为它没有官方的教条和教义。它最重要的文本是《道德经》和《庄子》，这两本书可能被认为是文学或哲学作品，而不是宗教文本。<br />
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Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy more than religious texts. --[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy instead of religious texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered as works of literature or philosophy rather than religious texts.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
1. 孔子是儒家学派的创始人，也是春秋时期人本主义思想的集大成者。儒家思想已成为我们文化遗产中的一部分。<br />
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Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and the main Humanist thinker of the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucian ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.<br />
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Confucius was the founder of the Confucianism and the major Humanist thinker in the Spring and Autumn Period, whose ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and a master of humanistic thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period. And Confucianism has become a part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 传统上，道教是归因于三个来源，最古老的是黄帝传说，但最著名的是老子的《道德经》。第三个来源就是庄子的作品。道教的最初来源据说是古代的《易经》。<br />
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Traditionally, Taoism has been attributed to three sources, the oldest being the legendary ‘Yellow Emperor’, but the most famous is Lao Zi's Tao Teh Ching. The third source is Chuang Tzu's work. However, the original source of Taoism is said to be the Book of Changes.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 08:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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孔子在中国历史上最早提出人的天赋素质相近，个性差异主要是因为后天教育与社会环境影响（“性相近也，习相远也”）。因而人人都可能受教育，人人都应该受教育。<br />
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Confucius was the first Chinese to argue that human beings are endowed with similar qualities, and personality differences are mainly due to the influence of education and social environment ("By nature men are similar to one another, but learning and practice make them different."). Thus, everyone could be and should be educated.<br />
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庄子在哲学思想上继承和发展了老子“道法自然”的思想观点，使道家真正成为一个学派，他自己也成为了道家的重要代表人物，与老子并称“道家之祖”。<br />
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Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's philosophical idea of "the natural law", making Taoism an academic school, and he himself became an important representative of Taoism, known as "the ancestor of Taoism" together with Laozi.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's idea of "Tao following nature" in philosophy, making Taoism a school of thought. He himself became an important representative of Taoism and was called "the ancestor of Taoism" with Laozi.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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1.儒家思想是先秦诸子百家学说之一，由孔子于公元前5世纪创立，是中国影响力最大的流派，也是中国古代的主流意识。 儒家思想的内涵丰富复杂，在广泛汲取古代典籍精华的基础上逐步发展出基础理论和思想，即讲大一统、讲君臣父子。由程朱理学、陆王心学到废除封建君主专制制度等，都体现了儒家思想的内容。<br />
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Confucianism is one of the various schools of thought in pre-Qin period, established by Confucius in the 5th century BC. It is the most influential school in China and the mainstream ideology in ancient China. The connotation of Confucianism is rich and complex. On the basis of extensively absorbing the essence of ancient classics, it has gradually developed the basic theories and thoughts, namely, the great unification and the emperor and the subjects just like father and sons. Besides, the philosophy of Cheng and Zhu, the philosophy of Lu and Wang, the abolition of the feudal autocratic monarchy, and so on are all the embodiment of Confucianism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道家思想是无所不能、永恒不灭，有辩证法因素和无神论倾向，是老子总结古老的道家思想所形成的完整系统理论，它以“道”为最高哲学范畴，认为“道”是世界的最高真理，是宇宙万物的本源，也是宇宙万物赖以生存的依据。 其主流派有黄老学派，鬼谷子纵横家、修真派、法家学派、玄学、杨朱学派。无为、不争，是老子对君王的告诫，汉文帝、唐太宗、宋仁宗、明太祖等皆以道家思想治国，使人民从前朝苛政之后得以休养生息。<br />
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Taoism, omnipotent and eternal, with a tendency to dialectical factors and atheism, is a complete system of theories formed by Lao Zi by summarizing ancient Taoist thoughts. It takes "Tao" as the highest philosophy and truth, the origin of the universe, and also the basis for the existence of the universe. Its main schools are Huang Lao school, Guiguzi school, Xiuzhen school, Legalist school, metaphysics, and Yang Zhu school. Lao Zi persuaded emperors to do nothing and fight for nothing. And Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty and Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty all ruled with Taoist thoughts, so that people could recover from the tyranny of the previous dynasty.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
1. 理学是中国古代最为精致、最为完备的理论体系，其影响至深至巨。理学的天理是道德神学，同时成为儒家神权和王权的合法性依据，至南宋末期被采纳为官方哲学。<br />
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Neo-Confucianism is the most exquisite and complete theoretical system in ancient China, and its influence is profound and enormous. The natural principle of Neo-Confucianism is moral theology, which has become the legal basis of Confucian theocracy and kingship, and was adopted as official philosophy at the end of Southern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Neo-Confucianism is the most comprehensive and complete theoretical system in ancient China, and its influence is profound and enormous in wide and in-depth. The core of Neo-Confucianism is moral theology, which has become the legal basis of Confucian theocracy and kingship, and was adopted as official philosophy at the end of Southern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 古代道家崇尚自然，有辩证法的因素和无神论的倾向，但是主张清静无为，反对斗争。<br />
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Ancient Taoism advocates nature, has dialectic factors and atheism tendency, but advocates quietism and opposes struggle.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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1. 大学之道，在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。 <br />
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The purpose of the university is to reveal noble virtues, to make people get rid of old habits, and to reach the highest state of goodness.<br />
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2.福之所倚，福兮祸之所伏。<br />
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It means that blessings and disasters are interdependent and transform each other. The metaphor is that bad things can lead to good results, and good things can lead to bad results. In other words, under certain conditions, blessings can become disasters and disasters can become blessings.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
1、儒家学派的创始人孔子第一次打破了旧统治阶级垄断教育的局面，变“学在官府”为“有教无类”，使传统文化教育播及到整个民族。因此儒家思想有了坚实的民族心理基础，为全社会所接受并逐步儒化了全社会。但是儒学在历史上也多次遭受严重冲击，近至满清的文字狱，毁古书严重的《四库全书》，远至秦始皇焚书令等。<br />
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Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of the old ruling class on education for the first time, changed the "learning in the government" to "teaching without class", and spread traditional culture and education to the whole nation. As a result, Confucianism had a solid national psychological foundation and was accepted by society as a whole, which gradually became Confucianized. However, Confucianism has also suffered many serious impacts in history, from the Manchu Qing dynasty's written jails to the destruction of ancient books in the Siku Quanshu, and the Qin Shihuang's book burning order.<br />
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Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of education by the old ruling class for the first time, changing "study in the government" to "education without class", so that traditional cultural education spread to the entire nation. Therefore, Confucianism has a solid national psychological foundation, accepted by the whole society and gradually Confucianized the whole society. However, Confucianism has also suffered severe impacts in history many times, as far as the Manchu literary prison, the "Siku Quanshu", which has severely destroyed ancient books, and as far as the book burning order of Qin Shihuang.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、一般认为道家思想的特征之一，是通过各种修炼而达到永恒不死的至高完美境界，“因而开创了中医养生学” ；又从炼丹实践中发明了火药，中国四大发明都与道教有关。从养生学源流的角度说：寿命无限。<br />
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It is generally believed that one of the characteristics of Taoist thought is to achieve the supreme perfection of eternal immortality through various cultivations, thus it creating the science of Chinese medicine and health and from the practice of alchemy, gunpowder was invented, and the four major inventions of China are all related to Taoism. From the perspective of the source of health science:it means infinite life span.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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1.董仲舒顺应汉武帝强权的需要，倡导“罢黜百家，独尊儒家”的思想。<br />
Dong Zhongshu adapted to the needs of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty to strengthen power, and advocated the idea of "deposing hundreds of schools and respecting Confucianism only". --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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2.道家以“道”为核心，是“诸子百家”中一门极为重要的哲学流派，存在于中华各文化领域，对中国乃至世界的文化都产生了巨大的影响。<br />
Taoism, with "Tao" as its core， is a very important philosophical school in "various schools of thought". It exists in all cultural fields of China and has a great impact on Chinese and even the world culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
1. 儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等，秦始皇焚书坑儒后，使儒家遭受重创。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。历经两千多年的发展演变，儒学文化构建起完整的思想体系，涉及政治、教育、道德伦理、行为准则、生活技艺等诸多方面，长期涵养国人的智慧和心灵，形成固定思维、心理以及生存模式，可谓根深蒂固。<br />
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Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of "banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only" and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 《老子》是道家学派的主要著作之一，它的产生丰富了我国传统文化和思想宝库。老子是道家思想的创始人，他提出了许多重要的范畴和观点，在中国哲学史上独放异彩，并给予后世以深远影响。<br />
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''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoist School; its production enriches our country's traditional culture and stock house of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed a lot of important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and influence the afterworld deeply. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoism and its production enriches our traditional culture and the treasury of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed many important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and have a far-reaching influence on the afterworld.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.人道主义是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。<br />
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Humanity is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.<br />
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Humanitarianism is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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Humanity is the eternal theme of human society, and it is applicable to any society, any era, and any government. Order and institution is the basic requirement for building a civilized human society.<br />
----<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
1、孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。<br />
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Confucius' ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society had a profound influence on later generations in China. Later on, thinkers at different stages of history put forward different content of visionary blueprints and goals to strive for, and such ideas also inspired progressive thinkers and reformers, with Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Yat-sen being influenced by them.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The social ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society from Confucius has posed profound impacts on China's future generations. Later, even in sundry historical times, miscellaneous idealists put forward different blueprints and struggle goals, which indicated that Confucius ideal has inspired advanced idealists and refomers, including Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Zhongshan.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。<br />
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After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was out of some unreasonable systems and bad practices in the old society were reformed and it then took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association promoted the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. However, Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
从鸦片战争到戊戌变法是新儒学的准备阶段，这一阶段主要表现为儒家学者在西方文明冲击之下被动接受西方文明的一些内容以求自强。<br />
The period from the Opium War to the Hundred Days Reform was the preparatory period of Neo-Confucianism,which was characterized by the passive acceptance of some elements of Western civilization by Confucian scholars in order to strengthen themselves under the impact of Western civilization.<br />
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道教源于神仙思想和神仙方术。虽神仙方术没有系统的理论，但神仙家信仰的方术被道教承袭，神仙方术演化为道教的修炼方术，神仙方士演化为道家的道士。<br />
Taoism originated from the idea of the divine immortals and the divine immortal arts. Given the fact that there is no systematic theory of divine and immortalism, the divine and immortalist beliefs were inherited by Taoism. The divine and immortalist prescriptions evolved into Taoist cultivation prescriptions, and the divine and immortalist practitioners evolved into Taoist priests.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 孔子（公元前551～公元前479）名丘，字仲尼，是中华文化思想的集大成者，儒家学说的创始人。我国古代伟大的思想家、政治家、教育家。他的哲学思想提倡“仁义”，“礼乐”，“德治教化”,儒学思想渗入中国人的生活，文化领域中，同时也影响了世界上其它地区的大部分人近两千年。<br />
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Confucius (551BC-479 BC), whose name is Qiu, courtesy name Zhong Ni, is the master of Chinese culture and thought and the founder of Confucianism. He is a great thinker, statesman and educator in ancient China. His philosophy advocated "benevolence and righteousness", "rites and music", and "moral education". Confucianism permeated the life and culture of the Chinese people, and also influenced most people in other parts of the world for nearly two thousand years.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as the native religion. Taoism had a profound influence on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism gained a new life through the democratic reform of the religious system and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.在大同的世界里，天下的人，不止以自己的家人为亲，不止以自己的父母儿女为爱，而是相互敬爱，爱天下所有的人。使老有所终，壮有所用，孩子们都能获得温暖与关怀，孤独的人与残疾者都有所依靠，男人各自有自己的事情，女人有满意的归宿。<br />
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Love each other not only in our family, but also in the world. Make the old have a home, strong and useful, children can get warmth and care, lonely people and the disabled can rely on others, men have their own businesses, women have a satisfactory home.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.儒家认为平等是来自于人性，人性是善良的那么人类社会也应该是善良的，既被证成的平等；而道家认为过去平等已经有很好的发展成果，那么在现有的平等认知基础上现在以及未来社会应该发展的更好才是，但是儒家礼教阶层阻碍了人类发展并成为窃国诸侯剥削百姓的大旗，所以要非仁绝礼消解各种意识形态，得到一个人类都满意的社会，既被承认的平等。<br />
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Confucianism believes that equality comes from human nature, and human nature is good, so human society should also be good, which is proved to be equality; while Taoism believes that equality has achieved good results in the past, then on the basis of the existing equality cognition, the society should develop better now and in the future. However, the Confucian ethical class hindered the development of human beings and became the banner of exploiting the common people by the feudal lords，therefore, it is necessary to eliminate all kinds of ideologies without benevolence, to achieve a society that is satisfactory to all human beings, which is already recognized as equality.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。<br />
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A gentleman is open and poised; while a petty man is unhappy and worried.<br />
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The gentleman is calm and at ease, while the small man is always full of anxiety. --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。<br />
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The person reflects the earth.The earth reflects heaven. Heaven reflects the Way. And the Way reflects its own nature.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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Men must conform to the earth, earth to heaven, heaven to Tao and Tao to nature.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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1. 经由董仲舒重新解释和发挥的儒教教义，十分重视礼仪制度的建设，特别是其中祭天、祭祖的礼仪制度建设。完备而复杂的礼仪制度有助于人们养成遵守秩序、安分守己的习惯，这正是儒教重视礼仪的重要目的之一。<br />
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Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and bahaving properly, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.<br />
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Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and conducting themselves, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。<br />
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Daoists regard Tao as the origin of the world. In politics, they uphold that Tao is to conform to the nature and advocated governing by doing nothing. According to the understanding of Tao and doing nothing, there are different denominations of Daoism focusing on different thoughts, some of which focus on governing and some on self-cultivation.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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1.儒家原先是先秦诸子百家之一，其创始人是孔子。儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒"罢黜百家，独尊儒术"的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。<br />
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Confucianism was originally one of the hundred schools of pre-Qin scholars, whose founder was Confucius. In the pre-Qin period, Confucianism had equal status with all scholars. In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "removing a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism", and imposed a restraint on ideology, which revived Confucianism.<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br />
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Among the five major religions in my country, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also called a local religion. Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-儒家通过等级制度的传播而传播。这种宗教是由于中国人对邻国的影响而传承的。儒家思想从其在山东的地盘传到了中国的北部和南部地区。<br />
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Confucianism diffused through hierarchical diffusion. This religion was passed on through the Chinese's influence on their neighboring countries. Confucianism spread from its hearth in the Shandong province into China's northern and southern territories.<br />
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2-道教或道教是中国血统的哲学传统，强调与道家和谐相处。道是大多数中国哲学流派的基本思想。然而，在道教中，它表示的原则是存在的一切的来源，模式和实质。<br />
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Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Su kyi<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
1. 孔子出生于2500年前。 孔子是17世纪的耶稣会传教士，他称他为孔子。<br />
Confucius was born over 2,500 years ago. Confucius was the Jesuit missionaries of the 17th century who called him Confucius and this latinate name has since become known to the west.<br />
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2. 儒家思想是中国古代的一种信仰体系，即人类从根本上讲是善良，可教和可改进的。<br />
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system that human beings are fundamentally good and teachable and improvable.<br />
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3. 道教是中国两种伟大的本土哲学传统之一。 老子，准子和道教描述了自汉末以来各种所谓的“宗教”运动。<br />
Daoism is one of the two great indigenous philosophical traditions in China. Laozi, Zhunzi and Daojiao describe various so-called "religious" movements since the end of Han Dynasty.<br />
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4. 道教甚至没有说出一位开国思想家所建立的传统，甚至是通过一个共同的信念，即一位名叫老子的老师创立了这所学校并写下了它的主要著作，称为道德经，有时 也被称为老子。<br />
Daoism does not name a tradition constituted by a founding thinker even through the common belief is that a teacher named Laozi originated the school and wrote it's major work, called the Daodejing， sometimes known as the Laozi.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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1. Confucius is regarded as a great philosopher and a great sage of ancient China. <br />
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孔子是中国古代的伟大哲学家和圣贤。<br />
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2. Confucianism, a major official system of thought in China, originated from the teachings of Confucius. <br />
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儒家思想是中国的主要官方思想体系，它源于孔子的教.<br />
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3. Daoism has a god for almost everything: the sun, the moon, stars, wind, rain, thunder, lightening, mountains and rivers.<br />
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道教几乎所有的事物都有上帝-太阳，月亮，星星，风，雨，雷声，闪电，山脉和河流。<br />
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4. Daoism was also associated with alchemy, which was at one time a practical way of seeking the elixir of life by the transmutation of base matter into gold.<br />
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道教还与炼金术有关，炼金术曾经是一种通过将基础物质转化为黄金来寻求生命之药的实用方法。--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
1Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion. In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society.<br />
2 Confucius father died when he was too young and he was teaching moral and physical training. <br />
3 Daoism is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life that arose in the 6th century BCE in what is now the eastern Chinese province of Henan. It has strongly influenced the culture and religious life of China and other East Asian countries ever since.<br />
1儒教通常被描述为一种社会和伦理哲学体系，而不是一种宗教体系。 实际上，儒家思想建立在古老的宗教基础上，旨在确立中国传统社会的社会价值观，制度和超越理想.<br />
2孔子的父亲在年纪轻轻的时候就去世了，当时他正在教道德和体育锻炼.<br />
3道教是公元前6世纪在现在的中国东部河南省兴起的一种哲学，一种宗教和一种生活方式. 从那以后，它对中国和其他东亚国家的文化和宗教生活产生了深远的影响.<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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1.在汉代的儒家思想普及过程中，很多社会问题得到解决。儒家思想倾向于施用仁政管理国家，政治家们以此为根据，限制土地过分集中，建立完善的道德体系。<br />
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Many social issues were settled during the popularization of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Confucianism claimed benevolent governance in managing the country, according to which politicians limited the centralization of lands and built a comprehensive moral system.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the popularization of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, many social problems were resolved. Confucianism tended to use benevolent governance to manage the country. Politicians used this as a basis to limit the excessive concentration of land and establish a sound moral system. --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.道家认为过去平等已经有很好的发展成果，那么在现有的平等认知基础上现在以及未来社会应该发展的更好才是，但是儒家礼教阶层阻碍了人类发展并成为窃国诸侯剥削百姓的大旗，所以要非仁绝礼消解各种意识形态，得到一个人类都满意的社会，既被承认的平等。<br />
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Taoism proposed that equality had gained fine development in the past, on which equality in contemporary and future society should have a better development. But Confucianism’s feudalism and ethical codes hindered the human growth and became the banner of theft and exploitation of the people by the vassals, so it is necessary to dissolve the various ideologies of non-benevolence and ritual to get a society that is satisfactory to all human beings, namely, recognized equality.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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1. 董仲舒提出“春秋大一统”和“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，强调以儒家思想为国家的哲学根本，杜绝其他思想体系。汉武帝采纳了他的主张。从此儒学成为正统思想，研究四书五经的经学也成为了显学。此时，孔子已死三百余年。董仲舒在具体的政策上将道家，阴阳家和儒家中有利于封建帝王统治的部分加以发展，形成了新儒家思想。<br />
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Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Spring and Autumn Period" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.<br />
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Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Nation" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang School and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. “道”是中国古代哲学的重要范畴，用以说明世界的本原、本体、规律或原理。在中国哲学史上，“道”这一范畴为道家首先提出。道的原始涵义指道路、坦途，以后逐渐发展为道理，用以表达事物的规律性。这一变化经历了相当长的历史过程。春秋后期，老子最先把道看作是宇宙的本原和普遍规律，成为道家的创始人。以后，在不同的哲学体系中其涵义虽有不同，但基本上成为世界本原、本体、规律或原理的代名词。<br />
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"Tao" is an important category in ancient Chinese philosophy, which is used to describe the origin, essence, law or principle of the world. In the history of Chinese philosophy, the category of "Tao" was first introduced by the Taoists. The original meaning of Dao refers to the path, the straight path, and later it gradually developed into reason, which is used to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a rather long historical process. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Laozi first regarded Tao as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Later, although its meaning differs in different philosophical systems, it basically became a synonym for the origin of the world, the essence, the law or the principle.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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1.孔子于公元前551年出生于现在的山东省，是中国古代著名的哲学家、政治家和教育家，也是儒家思想的创始人，“仁”和“礼”是其两大核心思想。孔子的儒家思想对中国和周边国家及地区乃至世界都有着深远的影响。2004年中国政府为了向外推广给汉语和传播中国文化，在海外建立了第一所“孔子学院”。<br />
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Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in the place where it is in Shangdong province now. He was a famous philosopher, statesman, educator in ancient China, and also the founder of Confucianism. “Humaneness” and “rites” are two of his core thoughts. Confucianism has had far-reaching influence on China, the surrounding countries and areas, and even the whole world. And in 2004, the Chinese government established the first Confucius Institute overseas for the purpose of promoting Chinese language and publicizing Chinese culture.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in what is now Shandong Province. He was a famous philosopher, statesman and educator in ancient China, and the founder of Confucianism, of which "benevolence" and "rites" are the two core ideas. In 2004, the Chinese government established the first Confucius Institute overseas in order to promote the Chinese language and culture abroad.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.老子是中国古代著名的思想家、哲学家，是道家思想的创始人，也是世界百位历史名人之一。《道德经》是老子唯一的著作。朴素辩证法是老子哲学思想的精髓，而“无为”是其政治思想核心。即使在21世纪的今天，大至国家大家，小到个人的行为处事，老子的思想依然对社会有着深远的影响。<br />
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As the founder of Taoism, Laozi was a philosopher and thinker in ancient China, and he is one of the world’s 100 great eminent figures in history. Naive Dialectic is the essence of Laozi’s philosophical ideas, while non-action is the core of his political thoughts. Even in the 21th century, his thoughts still have pervasive influence on socirties, from such important things as state affairs to such trivial things as individual styles.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lao Tzu is a famous thinker and philosopher in ancient China, the founder of Taoist thought, and one of the world's 100 most famous historical figures. The Tao Te Ching is the only work of Laozi. The simple dialectic is the essence of Laozi's philosophical thought, and "Wu Wei" is the core of his political thought. Even in the 21st century, Laozi's thoughts still have a profound influence on society, from the national level to individual behavior.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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孔子主张“为政以德”，用道德和礼教来治理国家是最高尚的治国之道。这种治国方略也叫“德治”或“礼治”。<br />
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Confucius advocated "to govern the country with morality". It is the noblest way to govern the country with morality and ethics. This strategy is also called "rule by virtue" or "rule by rites".--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无为、不争，是老子对君王的告诫，不与民争利。<br />
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Letting things take their own course and no fight for profits with the people. are the admonition of Laozi to the emperors and lords.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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1.儒家思想指的是儒家学派的思想，由春秋末期思想家孔子所创立。孔子创立的儒家学说在总结、概括和继承了夏、商、周三代尊尊亲亲传统文化的基础上形成的一个完整的思想体系。<br />
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Confucianism refers to the thought of Confucianism, which was founded by the thinker Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn period. The Confucianism established by Confucius is a complete ideological system based on the summary, generalization and inheritance of the traditional culture of respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism refers to the thoughts of Confucianism, which was founded by Confucius，the thinker, in the late Spring and Autumn period. The Confucianism established by Confucius is a complete ideological system based on the summary, generalization and inheritance of the traditional culture of respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 07:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道家的起源，可以一直追溯到春秋战国时期。道家思想的形成是以总结、发展、写著典籍为主要路径，每一次思想的跳跃都经历了极其长时间的众人积累，这也再一次的凸显了道家的生命力。<br />
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The origin of Taoism can be traced back to the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Taoist thought is formed with summary, development, and writings of classics as the main path. Every leap of thought has experienced an extremely long time of mass accumulation, which once again highlights the vitality of Taoism.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The origin of Taoism can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Taoism is formed with summary, development, and writings of classics as the main path. Every leap of thought has experienced an extremely long time of mass accumulation, which highlights the vitality of Taoism once again.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:43, 20 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:43, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 孔子创立了以仁为核心的道德学说，他自己也是一个很善良的人，富有同情心，乐于助人，待人真诚、宽厚。“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“君子成人之美，不成人之恶”、“躬自厚而薄责于人”等等，都是他的做人准则。<br />
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Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He was also a very kind person, full of compassion, willing to help others, sincere and generous. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.<br />
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Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He himself was also a very kind person full of compassion who is willing to help others with sincerity and generousity. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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After the founding of the people's Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Chinese Taoism gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the party and the government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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After the founding of the people's Republic of Chin, Chinese Taoism has gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society through its democratic reform of the religious system. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the Chinese Government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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1. 孔子创建了对中国及其周边国家具有深远影响的儒家学派。他学而不厌,海人不倦,首开私人讲学,是中国历史上致力于教育事业的第一人。<br />
Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, which had a profound influence on China and its neighboring countries. He was the first person in Chinese history to devote himself to the cause of education, as he never tired of learning and never tired of the sea.<br />
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Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, profoundly influencing China and its neighboring countries. He was the first Chinese throughout history to devote himself to the cause of education, for never being tired of learning and teaching. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.孔子创建了对中国及其周边国家具有深远影响的儒家学派。他学而不厌,诲人不倦,首开私人讲学,是中国历史上致力于教育事业的第一人。<br />
Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, which had a profound impact on China and its neighboring countries. He was the first person in Chinese history dedicating himself to the cause of education, as he never tired of learning and teaching.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。<br />
Taoism takes the Tao as the origin of the world, and the role of the Tao is to be soft and follow the path. In politics, Taoism advocates the rule of inaction, and because of the different understanding of the Tao and inaction, it is divided into different schools, and the focus of thought differs between different schools, either favoring the rule of the state, or favoring the rule of the body, etc.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
1.发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至云尔。<br />
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One studies too hard to have meal and indulges himself in knowledge too elated to worry，even failing to .aware the pending oldness.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.一般认为道家思想的特征之一，是通过各种修炼而达到永恒不死的至高完美境界，“因而开创了中医养生学” ；又从炼丹实践中发明了火药，中国四大发明都与道教有关。<br />
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Generally, it is believed that one of the features of Taoism is to reach the ultimate perfect of immortality through various ways of practice. So the science of health maintenance of traditional Chinese medicine was established; in addition, gunpowder originated from alchemy practice, actually, the four ancient Chinese inventions are all related to Taoism.<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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1.孔子（前 551—前 479）名丘，字仲尼，中国古代著名的思想家、教育家。他生活在天下失序的社会状态中，以济世爱民为己任，赋予天与人以全新的含义，形成了以“仁”为核心，以“礼”为形式的儒家理论体系，力图实现圣君、贤臣、良民的太平盛世的理想。<br />
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1.Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC), given name Qiu and capping name Zhongni, was a renowned philosopher and educator in ancient China. Living in a chaotic society, he assumed responsibility of transforming society and caring for the people, and redefined the concepts of Tian (Heaven) and Ren (Humanity). In the end, he developed a set of doctrines now known as Confucianism whose core value is Ren (Humanness / Benevolence) and outward expression is Li (Rituals), to achieve his dream of a peaceful and prosperous society consisting of sage-kings, capable ministers and well-behaved subjects.<br />
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2.老子哲学并不是弱者的哲学，他的哲学中充满了力量感。老子认为，水在柔弱宁静中，积聚了强大的力量，可以冲破世界上的一切障碍。<br />
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2.Laozi’s philosophy is not for the weak; it gives a strong sense of strength. Laozi believed that weak and calm as it may seem, water collects great strength that helps it break down all barriers.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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1.中庸精神随着时间的推移，其价值和重要性必将日益显现出来，这一点已经有所表现。中庸之道是世界上最具有连续性的文化，也是中国众多文化流派中最具有价值的核心精神和观念。<br />
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1.With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean will become increasingly apparent, which has already been demonstrated. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean, already demonstrated, will become increasingly apparent. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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2.道教文学艺术就是以宣传道教教义、神仙长生思想以及反映其宗教生活为题材的内容的各种形式的文学艺术作品。文学艺术可以扩大道教的社会影响，进而提高道教的宗教素质。反过来，道教的神仙信仰也给中国文学艺术的发展巨大的影响。<br />
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2.Taoist literature and art are literary and artistic works in various forms that promote Taoist doctrines, the thoughts of immortal longevity, and reflect their religious life. Literature and art can expand the social influence of Taoism, thereby improving the religious quality of Taoism. In turn, Taoist belief in immortals has also had a huge impact on the development of Chinese literature and art.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.儒家思想对中国文化的影响很深。传统的责任感思想、节制思想和忠孝思想，都是它和封建统治结合的结果，因此，儒家思想是连同我们当代在内的主流思想。儒学在中国存在几千年，对于中国的政治、经济等各个方面依然存在巨大的潜在影响。<br />
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Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture。The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism is the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.<br />
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Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture. The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism has been the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has maintain a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2．和谐文化建设是构建社会主义和谐社会的要义之一。中国传统道教文化对中国社会产生了深远的影响。在当今构建和谐社会的进程中,道教文化依然有其独特的存在价值。<br />
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The building of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials for building a harmonious socialist society. The traditional Chinese Taoist culture has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the process of building a harmonious society today, Taoist culture still has its unique value to exist.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The construction of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials of a harmonious socialist society. Taoist culture, a traditional Chinese culture, has exerted a profound influence on Chinese society. It still embraces unique value in today's building of a harmonious society. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.孔子学院是中外合作建立的非营利性教育机构，致力于适应世界各国（地区）人民对汉语学习的需要，增进世界各国（地区）人民对中国语言文化的了解。<br />
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Confucius Institutes are non-profit educational institutions jointly established by China and other countries. They are dedicated to meeting the needs of people in all countries (regions) for Chinese learning and promoting their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Confucius Institute is a non-profit educational institution established through Sino-foreign cooperation, dedicated to meeting the needs of people around the world for Chinese language learning and enhancing their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the CPC and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has shown an unprecedented look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the country and world peace.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the government's religious policies in the new era, Chinese Taoism has taken on a new and unprecedented appearance, making positive contributions to the economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
1. 孔子去世后，其弟子及再传弟子把孔子及其弟子的言行语录和思想记录下来，整理编成《论语》。该书被奉为儒家经典。<br />
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After the death of Confucius, his students wrote down all conversations they had with their teacher and then compiled them into the Analects, which has been regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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After the death of Confucius, his disciples and re-disciples recorded the words and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples and compiled them into the ''Analects'', which is regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 《老子》书提出以“道”为核心的哲学思想体系。它以道为宇宙的根本，阐述了道的本质、特点及其运动变化的规律。<br />
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The book Laozi establishes a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The book, ''Laozi'', presents a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
因此古儒实际上是在一个礼崩乐坏的时代，努力复兴西周价值的这样一个学派。离开了对西周这一套的分析，我们是没有办法认识古儒的。<br />
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Thus ancient Confucianism was in fact a school of thought striving to revive the values of the Western Zhou at a time when rituals and music were in ruins. It can not be fully understood without an analysis of Western Zhou.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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老子说：“上善若水，水善利万物而不争。”水无常形，顺势而为，为而不争，方达所愿。可以削平山川却堵不住流水。“不争先”不是不求上进，而是尊重自然规律，不破坏均衡，不因小失大、迷失自我。<br />
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Lao Tzu said, "Water is good for it is good for all things but does not compete." Water has no permanent form. It follows the trend and does not struggle to reach its destination. While it is possible to cut down mountains water can not be blocked. "It is not a matter of not striving for advancement, but of respecting the laws of nature, not destroying the balance, not losing oneself for the sake of minor things.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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1. 南北朝时期（420一589）是道教进一步充实完善的时代，是道教走上成熟的时代，出现了众多的道教改革家、理论家，他们的活动对后世道教有着重要的影响。<br />
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1. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420-589) was a time when Taoism was further enriched, a time when Taoism came to maturity and numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, having an important influence on the development of Taoism.<br />
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Taoism was further developed and came to maturity in the Southern and Northern Dynastie(420-589) when numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged and their activities had an important influence on the development of Taoism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2. 曲阜孔庙为纪念孔夫子而兴建，千百年来屡毁屡建，到今天已经发展成超过100座殿堂的建筑群。<br />
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2. The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and built again and again over the centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces today.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and rebuilt again and again over the past centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1.儒家的“德治”主义就是主张以道德去感化教育人。儒家认为，无论人性善恶，都可以用道德去感化教育人。这种教化方式，是一种心理上的改造，使人心良善，知道耻辱而无奸邪之心。<br />
The Confucian "rule of virtue" doctrine advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is good or bad, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people good-hearted, knowing the shame and not being evil.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucian doctrine of "rule of virtue" advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is, good or evil, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people kind-hearted and knowing the shame but not being evil.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“躬自厚而薄责于人” 等，都是孔子的做人准则。<br />
"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to others", "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are all Confucius’s principles of life.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to yourself" and "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are both Confucius's codes of conduct.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.认为天地万物都有"道"而派生，即所谓"一生二，二生三，三生万物"，社会人生都应法"道"而行，最后回归自然。<br />
It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "One life two, two life three, three life all things", social life should follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "Two in one, three in two, three in all". Social life should all follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
1.孔子追求的“礼”，是西周时的等级名分制度。为了实现“礼”，孔子进一步提出了“正名”的主张。<br />
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Confucius's pursuit of " rites " is the Western Zhou Dynasty hierarchy system.In order to realize the " rites ", Confucius further put forward the " rectification of name ".<br />
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The "ritual" pursued by Confucius was the hierarchical system of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In order to realize "li", Confucius further proposed the idea of "rectification of name".--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象,为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。 <br />
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Since the reform and opening-up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new period, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the introduction of reform and opening-up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new period, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 07:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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1、孔子是中国思想史上第一个把道德作为做人和治国首要条件和最高标准提出来的哲人。道德的核心是仁。儒家提倡人与人之间的仁和礼。今天，在中国和其他许多国家，儒学的研究正在迅速增长。<br />
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Confucius was the first philosopher in China's ideological history to propose moral standards as the prior criterion for man's behaviour and governing a country.The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and courtesy among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is rapidly growing.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius was the first philosopher in the history of Chinese thought to put morality as the primary and highest standard for being a man and governing a country. The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and etiquette among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is growing rapidly. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。 <br />
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Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism is a religion inherent in China, with a history of more than 1,800 years. It is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of China, with distinctive Chinese characteristics, and a profound impact on overall Chinese culture. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。<br />
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Confucius lived in Wei State for about 10 months. Due to someone advancing slander in front of Duke Ling of Wei, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to publicly monitor Confucius. Therefore, Confucius led his disciples to leave Wei and planned to go to Chen State. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br />
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Daoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Dao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Daoism and the supreme gods, and building a huge system of classic Daoism gods. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Confucius stayed in Wei for about 10 months, but when someone slandered him in front of Duke Weiling, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to monitor his movements openly. Therefore, Confucius left Wei with his disciples to Chen. <br />
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2. Inheriting and developing the pre-Qin dynasty Taoist thought, it holds “Tao” as the highest belief, evolving the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, forming a huge system of classical Taoist arts and deities.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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1.在长期的教学实践活动中，孔子积累和总结了很多教学经验。他主张因材施教，根据学生的不同特点分别指导。<br />
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In the long-term teaching practice, Confucius has accumulated and summarized a lot of teaching experience. He advocated teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and instructing them separately according to their different features.<br />
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In the long-term teaching practice activities, Confucius has accumulated and summed up a lot of teaching experience. He advocates teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and guiding students according to their different characteristics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为一种宗教实体，道教不仅有其独特的经典教义、神仙信仰和仪式活动，而且还有其宗教传承、教团组织、科戒制度、宗教活动场所。<br />
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As a religious entity, Taoism not only has its unique classical doctrine, immortal belief and ritual activities, but also has its religious inheritance, organization of religious groups, system of discipline and places for religious activities.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
1.孔子的经济思想最主要的是重义轻利、“见利思义”的义利观与“富民”思想。这也是儒家经济思想的主要内容，对后世有较大的影响。<br />
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The most important economic thought of Confucius is the value of justice over profit, the view of righteousness and benefit, and the thought of enriching the people. This is also the main content of Confucian economic thought, which has great influence on later generations.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius'economic thought mainly consists of the concept of justice and benefit, the concept of justice and benefit and the thought of enriching the people.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教哲学和宗教已经渗透到所有受中国影响的亚洲文化中，尤其是越南、日本和韩国的文化。在受中国文化影响的地区，各种宗教习俗让人想起道教，这表明他们与中国游客和移民的早期接触还没有被阐明。<br />
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Daoist philosophy and religion have found their way into all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Daoist philosophy and religion have infiltrated all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br />
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Taoism before liberation was represents strong feudal atmosphere. It became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism before liberation was in strong feudal atmosphere. Therefore, it became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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孔子，姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，公元前551年，出生于春秋后期的鲁国。<br />
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Confucius is known as Kong Qiu, a combination of his surname and his given name, and he is also named as Zhongni, which is his courtesy name.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.儒教是孔子所创立、孟子所发展、荀子所集其大成，之后延绵不断，为历代儒客推崇，至今仍有一定生命力的学术流派。<br />
Confucianism is an academic school which was founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and epitomized by Xuncius. It has continued to be admired by scholars of Confucianism and remined vitality until today.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism is an academic school which was founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and epitomized by Xuncius. It has been further developed and admired by scholars of Confucianism in all ages and still has vitality at present.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
Among the five major religions in our country, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by Chinese, so it is also called a local religion of China.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等。而后 汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒"罢黜百家，独尊儒术"的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。<br />
Confucianism had equal status with other schools of thought in the pre Qin period. In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "deposing hundreds of schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", so as to reinvigorate Confucianism.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion originated in China and founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as local religion.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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1.身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。<br />
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The benevolent government advocated by Confucius in troubled times has no room for display, but during the three months of ruling Lu State, the powerful Qi State also feared Confucius’ talents, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to be exercised, but in the three months he ruled the state of Lu, he made even the powerful state of Qi fear Confucius' talent, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to give free play, but during the three months he governed the state of Lu, his talent made even the powerful state of Qi fear, which serves to show that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br />
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Taoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, and evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoism and the highest gods, and building a huge system of classic Taoism gods.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism inherited and developed Taoist thought from the pre-Qin dynasty, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, and building a huge system of classical Taoist deities.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 孔子63岁时，曾这样形容自己：“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至。”当时孔子已带领弟子周游列国9个年头，历尽艰辛，不仅未得到诸侯的任用，还险些丧命，但孔子并不灰心，仍然乐观向上，坚持自己的理想，甚至是明知其不可为而为之。<br />
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When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, but he almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, and even almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 作为中华文化最重要的两翼，道家和儒家的关系比较复杂，它们之间有互相学习的一面，也有互相对立的一面。<br />
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As the two most important components of Chinese culture, Daoism and Confucianism have a complicated relationship, with both learning from each other and opposing each other. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the two most important wings of Chinese culture, Taoism and Confucianism have a complex relationship. Specifically, they are mutually reinforcing and antagonistic.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
道教是中国的本土宗教，道教主张天人合一，东汉末年出现大量的道教组织。<br />
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Taoism is China's indigenous religion advocating the unity of heaven and man.The end of the Eastern Han Dynasty appeared a large number of Taoist organizations.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and it advocates the unity of heaven and man. A large number of Taoist organizations appeared in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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儒学思想，是先秦诸子百家学说之一。儒学文化是以儒家学说为指导思想的文化宗派，为春秋时期孔丘所创。<br />
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Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin dynasty. Confucianism is a school of culture guided by Confucianism. It was created by Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin periods. Confucian culture is a cultural sect with Confucianism as its guiding ideology, created by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn Period. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin periods. Confucian culture is guided by Confucianism and created by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn Period.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
1. 现存《仪礼》十七篇，便是由孔子及弟子将活态的典礼仪式转换成凝固态文本的成果。为了突出主要线索，避免枝蔓，宫室形制、服饰裁剪、礼器使用等诸多细节每每被省略，这对当时的读者不会造成阅读障碍。这一次转换是《仪礼》成书的缘起，与孔壁中经一样，旨在保存文化，希冀借助文本形式传于后世。<br />
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1. The existing 17 "rituals" are the result of Confucius and his disciples transforming the living rituals into solidified texts. In order to highlight the main clues and avoid omitting many details such as branches and tendrils, palace shape, clothing cutting, ritual vessel use, etc., this will not cause dyslexia to the readers at that time. This transformation is the origin of the completion of Yili, which, like Kongbi Zhongjing, aims to preserve culture and hopes to pass it on to later generations in the form of text. <br />
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2. 道家所主张的“道”，是指天地万物的本质及其自然循环的规律。自然界万物处于经常的运动变化之中，道即是其基本法则。就是关于“道”的具体阐述。所以，人的生命活动符合自然规律，才能够使人长寿。这是道家养生的根本观点。<br />
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2. The "Tao" advocated by Taoism refers to the essence of all things in the world and the law of their natural circulation. All things in nature are in constant movement and change, and Tao is its basic principle. It is a concrete exposition of "Tao". Therefore, only when people's life activities conform to the laws of nature can they live a long life. This is the fundamental view of Taoist health preservation. <br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 01:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
1.儒家学派的创始人孔子第一次打破了旧统治阶级垄断教育的局面，变"学在官府"为"有教无类"，使传统文化教育播及到整个民族。因此儒家思想有了坚实的民族心理基础，为全社会所接受并逐步儒化了全社会。<br />
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For the first time, Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of education by the old ruling class and changed "study in the government" to "education without class", so that traditional cultural education spread to the entire nation. Therefore, Confucianism has a solid national psychological foundation, accepted by the whole society and gradually Confucianized the whole society.<br />
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2.春秋战国时期，老子集古圣先贤之大智慧，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。<br />
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During the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, Laozi gathered the great wisdom of ancient sages to form a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking the formal formation of Taoism.<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.儒家经书是四书五经，但儒家早期以五经为主，在佛教禅宗的挑战下，宋代程朱理学以四书取代五经的地位。<br />
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The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics. However, the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Zen Buddhism, the neo-Confucianism of Song Dynasty replaced the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics, but the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Buddhist Zen Buddhism, the Song Dynasty's Cheng-Zhu Theory replaced the status of the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The scriptures of confucianism are the Four Books and Five Classics, in which the majority is the latter one at the prelimetary stage, but then the Four Books got the upper hand under the theory of Chen-zhu in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.春秋时期，老子总结了古老的道家思想的精华，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。道家是对中华哲学、文学、科技、艺术、音乐、养生、宗教等影响最深远的学派。<br />
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During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Daoism, marking the formal formation of Daoism. Daoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking the formal formation of Taoist thought. Taoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
孔子是中国古代思想家、政治家、教育家，儒家学派创始人。<br />
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Confucius is an ancient Chinese thinker, statesman, educator, and founder of the Confucian school.<br />
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在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Among the five major religions in my country, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also called a local religion。<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1. 孔子是中国著名的思想家、教育家、政治家，与弟子周游列国十四年，晚年修订六经，即《诗》《书》《礼》《乐》《易》《春秋》。<br />
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Confucius was a famous Chinese thinker, educator and statesman who traveled around ancient China with his disciples for 14 years and revised the Six Classics in his later years, namely, The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annuals.<br />
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2. 庄子的文章，想象奇幻，构思巧妙，多彩的思想世界和文学意境，文笔汪洋恣肆，具有浪漫主义的艺术风格，瑰丽诡谲，意出尘外，乃先秦诸子文章的典范之作。<br />
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Zhuangzi's writings are full of fantastical imagination, ingenious ideas, colorful world of thought and literary contexts, and unrestrained writing. They also fall to a romantic artistic style which is magnificent and deceitful, boasting for masterpieces among those in the pre-Qin plutocrats.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
儒学,儒学亦称儒家学说，起源于东周春秋时期，自汉朝汉武帝时期起，成为中国社会的正统思想。<br />
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Confucianism, known as Confucian School, originated from Spring and Autumn Period in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and became orthodox of the society in China since the reign of Hanwu Emperor of the Han Dynasty. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Among the five major religions, Daoism is the only religion which originated from China and was founded by Chinese. Therefore, it was called native religion as well.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
1.孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。<br />
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Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage of heaven" and "the mudor of heaven" during his lifetime.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius was one of the most erudite scholars in society at that time. He was honored as the "Sage of Heaven" and "Wood Duo of Heaven" when he was alive. The most sacred Wenxuan Wang Xianshi, Wanshishishi.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage from heaven" and is honored as "the mudor of heaven" nowadays.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br />
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Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.孔子是儒家学派创始人，他提出“仁”，具有古典人道主义的性质：主张“礼”，维护周礼这是孔子政治思想中的保守部分。儒家文化后来发展成为中国古代正统文化。<br />
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Confucius is the founder of The Confucian school, he proposed "benevolence", with the nature of classical humanitarianism: advocated "rites" and maintained the Rites of Zhou, which is the conservative part of Confucius' political thought. Confucian culture later developed into the orthodox culture of ancient China<br />
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2.道家所主张的“道”，是指天地万物的本质及其自然循环的规律。自然界万物处于经常的运动变化之中，道即是其基本法则。<br />
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The "Tao" advocated by Taoism refers to the nature of the universe and the law of its natural cycle. Everything in nature is in constant motion and change, and tao is its fundamental law.<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.儒家思想是中国文明史经历了夏、商、周的近1700年之后，由春秋末期思想家孔子所创立。孔子创立的儒家学说在总结、概括和继承了夏、商、周三代尊尊亲亲传统文化的基础上形成的一个完整的思想体系。<br />
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Confucianism was founded by the thinker Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn Period after nearly 1700 years in the history of Chinese civilization. The Confucianism founded by Confucius formed a complete ideological system on the basis of summarizing, generalizing and inheriting the traditional culture of respecting and respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.若是说儒家的中枢是仁的话，那么道家的中枢便是自然。依道家来看，儒的倡导虽好，却只能靠严以律已刻意做到，一有不慎，则内以伤身，外以乱人。宋朝时，儒生发展到“存天理、灭人欲”便可看出。而道以自然为本，更加贴近于人的生活。<br />
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If the essential idea of Confucianism is benevolence, then for Taoism, it is nature. According to Taoism, although the advocacy of Confucianism is good, it can only be done deliberately by strict rules. If there is any carelessness, it will hurt the body internally and disturb people externally. In the Song Dynasty, it can be seen that Confucian scholars developed to "save the laws of nature and destroy the desires of man." Based on nature, Taoism is closer to people's lives.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.孔子的美学思想核心为“美”和“善”的统一，也是形式与内容的统一。孔子提倡“诗教”，即把文学艺术和政治道德结合起来，把文学艺术当作改变社会和政治的手段，陶冶情操的重要方式。并且孔子认为，一个完人，应该在诗、礼、乐修身成性。孔子的美学思想对后世的文艺理论影响巨大。<br />
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The core of Confucius’s aesthetic thought is the unity of “beauty” and “Goodness” , as well as the unity of form and content. Confucius advocated “Poetic Education” , that is, the combination of literature and art and political morality, literature and art as a means to change society and politics, an important way to cultivate sentiment. And Confucius thought, a perfect person, should be in poetry, ritual, music self cultivation. Confucius’s aesthetic thought had a great influence on the literary theory of later ages.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.老子思想的核心是道，道的本性即是自然，出于对自然的推崇，老子也很推崇素朴和稚拙。古朴、稚拙作为一种美的形态，在中国古代一直受到人们普遍的赞颂，与此对立的华艳轻浮，历来为人们所蔑视，这一倾向即受到老子思想的影响。古朴、稚拙之外，老子也很推崇恬淡。平淡之美，也为很多人所崇尚，在宋代更成为一种审美风尚。<br />
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The core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao", which essential is nature. Due to his extol the nature, Lao Zi also praise simplicity and naivety. simplicity and naivety, as a type of beauty, always be admired during Chinese ancient time. On its oppsite, extravagance and flippancy Has always been despised by people. this tendency was influenced by Laozi's thought. In addition tosimplicity and naivety, Laotse also highly praised plain. Plain Beauty, also for many people advocate. Moreover in the Song dynasty it become an aesthetic trend.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==<br />
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1.Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius (6th–5th century BCE) and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia.<br />
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儒教，是孔子（公元前6至5世纪）传播的生活方式，其后是中国人传播了两千多年。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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儒家思想由孔子（公元前6-5世纪）传播一种生活方式，中国人已遵循的两千多年。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Taoism, indigenous religion-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2000 years.<br />
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道教是一种固有的宗教哲学传统，已经改变了中国2000多年的生活。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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道教是中国的本土宗教，也是一种哲学传统，影响了中国2000多年。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11726720201221 trans2020-12-21T03:52:11Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
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Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
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在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
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在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？ 这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
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杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
<br />
胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
<br />
文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
<br />
虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
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'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
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A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
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附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》<br />
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《呸呸呸！？》<br />
<br />
文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。<br />
<br />
是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
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很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
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I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
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读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
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作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。<br />
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作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
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我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
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这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
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我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
<br />
曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。<br />
<br />
这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?<br />
<br />
当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。 他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。 他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。 他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.<br />
<br />
那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
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在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
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张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.<br />
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。 因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
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然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br />
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换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br />
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br />
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
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As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
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金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
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Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
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而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
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因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br />
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因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.<br />
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换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
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因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
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In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
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显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
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Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
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The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
<br />
原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。 土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。 狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
<br />
村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置， 这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br />
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Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
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Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br />
<br />
“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br />
<br />
刘新民<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''摘要<br />
'''<br />
<br />
自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br />
<br />
张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.<br />
<br />
<br />
随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。 但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。 因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。<br />
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
张承志被一些人赞誉为一本书拯救了整个二十世纪的中国写作，他乘着《心灵史》（《灵魂史》，1992年）大受欢迎的顺风，似乎又回到了公共论坛，他的话语权又恢复了，他的 "神圣 "使命感又重新被唤醒。 乍一看，这似乎不是那个完成《心灵史》后被自己升华到的精神境界所折服，向读者诚恳恳地恳求："从今以后，不再有这个'我'了 "的张承志。请把我从你们的记忆中驱逐出去。......我甚至已经把自己吓了一跳，有了这本书，我可以让自己如此戛然而止。"[张承志，“心灵史”（广州：花城出版社，1991）311。但是，张承志在此后与读者的持续对话中，是否曾退出公共论坛，放逐自己的声音？--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
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Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。 虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。 尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。 相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
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自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
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很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
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张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。 他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。 同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。<br />
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。 他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。 这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。 然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br />
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
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他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.<br />
<br />
但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。<br />
<br />
张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
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首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
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然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
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虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.<br />
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然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?这个问题亚历山大，马丁.沃尔斯勒和新民刘曾提出过。现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
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我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
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然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
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即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
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即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
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In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
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在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
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这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
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'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
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其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
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'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
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In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
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In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
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我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。<br />
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在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。<br />
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在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
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我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
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Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
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The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
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在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
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在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
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1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
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1. 特征<br />
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1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
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与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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'''1. 特征<br />
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1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
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和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
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“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
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不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
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地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
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The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
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当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
<br />
而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
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因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
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有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
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从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
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王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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'''3.Trends<br />
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3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
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What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
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The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
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“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
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共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
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'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
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From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
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-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
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20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。<br />
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''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''<br />
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从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:<br />
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--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
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-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
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-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。 这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。<br />
<br />
-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。 时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br />
<br />
2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步， 解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事， 就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
<br />
因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
<br />
'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
<br />
巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
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6 （周 1929:180-181）<br />
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7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
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7 （周 1923）<br />
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8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
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8 （《家》1952）<br />
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9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
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9 （1982 一篇叙文）<br />
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10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
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10 （随想录）1980年代的论文更具自传性，涉及当今社会的文学和问题。 由于本文的性质，我们可以通过他的“随机思想”来了解巴金的内心世界。<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
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11（随想录 1978-86， 见 巴金 1988）<br />
<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.<br />
<br />
2，巴金通过狗表达了失去妻子的痛苦。 在论文结尾之前，Ba Jin痛苦地回忆起他的妻子，他在那十年中病倒了去世。 在早些时候出现在该系列中的文章“在纪念下山中”中，他承认对她的死感到内severe，这使他陷入了梦中。 他声称，他们因他而拒绝了她的治疗。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
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本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
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"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
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6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
<br />
正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115842History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T13:42:01Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
<br />
1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
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From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
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*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
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*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
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*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
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*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
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==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
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[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
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(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
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Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
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Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115828History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T13:35:58Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales */</p>
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<br />
=Theories=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
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Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
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The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115818History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T13:32:45Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
<br />
2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
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传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
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雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
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===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
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in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115806History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T13:28:10Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* References */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
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SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
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TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
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SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
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TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
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TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
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Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
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The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
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The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
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If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
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To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
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===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
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[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115682History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T12:04:42Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
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As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
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*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
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===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
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Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11567020201215 cultexam 42020-12-19T11:55:57Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
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2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not support a long-form video. '''Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows a video length of up to one hour.??? QUOTATION IS MISSING'''--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
2. Users: most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week so as to further increase its attention. Creators have identified this gap to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. QUOTATION IS MISSING --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:<br />
<br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:'''逻辑完全不通！！！QUOTATION IS MISSING'''--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can ensnare the public interest and become viral in public by creating short videos in which anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Peril: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so children would be exposed to harmful information. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app that has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health, and unsafe issues. QUOTATION IS MISSING--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
可补充文中出现过的专有名字--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok?--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok? --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world? --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
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Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
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A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
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A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
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A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
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A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. additionally, People can learn new things.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
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Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
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* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
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* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
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* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
'''文献顺序请参照首字母先后顺序！--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)'''<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 student number missed, major missed== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, [[which]] ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated [[and]] achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
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===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
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Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan [[Province]]. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. [[(There might need to have an explanation of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, like which god he is.)]]Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is [[listed]] both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. [[Just]] the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）(There might need to have a more specific sources instead of 百度百科 only.)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
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Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha [[(There might need to have an explanation of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, like which god he is.)]] and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. [[It was]] initially named Mount Jiuzi [[and was later renamed to]] Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet [[Li Bai]] during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
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Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
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Buddhism n.佛教<br />
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shrine n.圣地<br />
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pullulate v.大量产生<br />
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Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
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Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
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Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
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Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
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Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
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Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
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Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
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Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
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reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
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ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
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Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
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Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
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Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
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Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
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Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
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Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
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Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
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Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
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Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
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Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
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Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
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Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
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The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
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Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
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Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
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Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
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The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
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Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
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Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
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Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
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Golden Summit 金顶<br />
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Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
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Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
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Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
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Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
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nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
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妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
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2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
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3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
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4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
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5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
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6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
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6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
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2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
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3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
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4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
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5. Mount Putuo.<br />
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6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
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3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
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4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
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5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in the ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first country to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions. (Lu and Huang 1995,1) The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or the lodestone attracts iron" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
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In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
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In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
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Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''<br />
--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan Province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try(<span style="color:red">tried</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened(<span style="color:red">threatening</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw(<span style="color:red">flaws</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC) in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can(<span style="color:red">could</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC) survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on(<span style="color:red">on the development of</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts(<span style="color:red">One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose(<span style="color:red">selected</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as(<span style="color:red">at</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment(<span style="color:red">punishments</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC) according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later(<span style="color:red">latter</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it (<span style="color:red">has lost</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
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Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
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Yandi 炎帝<br />
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Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
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Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
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Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
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the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
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The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
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Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
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Nian 年<br />
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new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
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[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Emperor Qianlong of Qing Dynasty (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect in Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
Face changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and then their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Peng Denghuai ，a Sichuan Opera master，changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55) --[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its motley colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to appraise the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow mask symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green mask symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. These rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in Sichuan Opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the surface of thin paper. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated type. Masks are uauslly painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
Luo Yue 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30. <br />
<br />
Wang Huaqing 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design<br />
<br />
Xiao Yuanjin 萧源锦. (2013) 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 02:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher education as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout whole China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi teaching in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, the Academy were packed out for its popularity, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises the Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc. The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). These couplets originate from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is the core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still maintain their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats. Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still undertake the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 09:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=115639History of Translation Studies 102020-12-19T11:30:56Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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(please add your student number and major)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal and functional equivalence, the former of which pursues the equivalence in form and content and the latter of which pursues equivalence in function between the two languages. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but it does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style had not been covered by linguistic theory by then. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, the translator should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.(This paragraph is too long so I divided it into two parts.)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. (Lack of the source)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures. Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, if it still doesn’t work after changing the form, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but translators are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Formal equivalence===<br />
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Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.(What’s the meaning of gloss translation?)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis. That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter is a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.(separate the paragraph)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively , actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. With formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is vivider and easier to understand for the target readers.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Westerners focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is a polite and emotional way to express feelings.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings, so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translators’mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if they translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
It is obvious to see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as Chinese regard food as something that matters much to their life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I have asked Dobbin of ours to come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics, and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.(please add the source)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivider description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Theory of functional equivalence and formal equivalence matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practices. Though having been developed a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fittest translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. Translators must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)(Separate the paragraph)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the first translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence are achieved.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, genre and culture.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24） <br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
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Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
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In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
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"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
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"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
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The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
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"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
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Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
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Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
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The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
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"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
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We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
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“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
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In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
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In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
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"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
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In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
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Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
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Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
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老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
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“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
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依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
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"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
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Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
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"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
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Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
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Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
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Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
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In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
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It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
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"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
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This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
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"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
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The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
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In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
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Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
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The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
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===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to experess the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
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understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden's comparison of the translator and slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of Western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. <br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
<br />
Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden argued that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties: not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and finding out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
<br />
It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
<br />
Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
<br />
In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
<br />
Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
<br />
The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
<br />
The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.<br />
<br />
Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.(quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. (quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong X<br />
iangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) <br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei ect. (Yi Jing,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent academic discipline'''--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.（quotation missing）<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
<br />
This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019） <br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
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Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
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Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
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Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
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Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
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There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
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The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
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Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
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EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
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This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
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Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
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And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
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In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
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拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
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First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
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LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
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Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
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赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
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否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
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HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
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And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
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海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
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她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
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Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
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For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
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Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
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The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
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For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
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By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
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Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
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Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
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Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
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Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
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Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
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Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
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Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
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Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
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Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
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Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
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Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
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Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
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Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
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This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
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He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
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In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
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In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
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Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
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====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
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In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
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In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
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Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
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Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
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Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
==Abstract == <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
==Content==<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
==<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_1&diff=11558820201215 cultexam 12020-12-19T10:43:38Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==<br />
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:......... Major...........<br />
<br />
===The History===<br />
<br />
So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?<br />
<br />
===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===<br />
<br />
Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?<br />
<br />
A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?<br />
<br />
===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.<br />
<br />
A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?<br />
<br />
Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;<br />
<br />
1.) To predict the future,<br />
<br />
2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise. <br />
<br />
According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?<br />
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Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?<br />
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The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?<br />
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You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学<br />
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2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖<br />
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3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历<br />
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4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）<br />
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5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?<br />
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2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?<br />
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3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?<br />
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4- What is Chinese astrology based on?<br />
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5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.<br />
<br />
2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.<br />
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3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.<br />
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4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.<br />
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5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9<br />
<br />
何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591<br />
<br />
Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.<br />
<br />
Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.<br />
<br />
""Almanac" "lunar" zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.<br />
<br />
Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.<br />
<br />
"Five Elements(Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com<br />
<br />
==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==<br />
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]<br />
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===Spring Festival Couplets===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).<br />
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Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).<br />
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Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).<br />
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The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).<br />
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There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.<br />
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.<br />
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.<br />
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions ===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联 <br />
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Paste 贴<br />
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Horizontal scroll 横联<br />
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Upper scroll 上联<br />
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Lower scroll 下联<br />
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===Questions ===<br />
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
<br />
To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.<br />
<br />
2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
<br />
It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
<br />
First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left. <br />
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4.How to do with the Old Couplets?<br />
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Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.<br />
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==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - Translation 英语笔译==<br />
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[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]<br />
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===Guzheng===<br />
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''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument which was widespread at that time (Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 2019, 69). Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese.<br />
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''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' became an important instrument and was widespread at that time (Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 2019, 69). Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).<br />
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There are different opinions about how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51).--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were formerly made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)<br />
<br />
The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were oiginally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is about a rectangle, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. As the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]<br />
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The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)<br />
<br />
The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made from materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke the sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the strings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several other schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)<br />
<br />
Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school. (Cao Yue 2002, 84)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang played the ''guzheng'' to merge the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)<br />
<br />
In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated a TV show—''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classic music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.<br />
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.<br />
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165. <br />
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.<br />
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.<br />
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.<br />
*Wang Xiaohong 王晓红, Gu Haijun 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Meng Tian 蒙恬 <br />
*Zhao Lin 赵璘<br />
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》<br />
*anterior mountain 前岳山 <br />
*posterior mountain 后岳山<br />
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱 <br />
*string pegs 弦钉<br />
*turning box 调音盒 <br />
*zither feet 琴足<br />
*paulownia 桐木 <br />
*mahogany 红木<br />
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁<br />
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲<br />
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹<br />
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》<br />
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》<br />
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》<br />
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》<br />
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香<br />
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望<br />
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?<br />
<br />
2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese? <br />
<br />
3. Who is Meng Tian? <br />
<br />
4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?<br />
<br />
5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?<br />
<br />
6. What is the function of movable bridges?<br />
<br />
7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called? <br />
<br />
8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?<br />
<br />
9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes? <br />
<br />
10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?<br />
<br />
11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to? <br />
<br />
12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.<br />
<br />
2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power. <br />
<br />
3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.<br />
<br />
4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. <br />
<br />
5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long. <br />
<br />
6. They are moved to change the timbres.<br />
<br />
7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.<br />
<br />
8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.<br />
<br />
9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. <br />
<br />
10. The Northern school and the Southern school.<br />
<br />
11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.<br />
<br />
12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).<br />
<br />
==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - Student No. 202070080581. Major:.........<br />
===Facial makeup===<br />
<br />
Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up. The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) （seperate the paragraph --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)）<br />
<br />
Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the faces of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it comes to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with strict moral codes; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up. The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It was said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)<br />
<br />
People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous, good-looking and was bound to win every battle in which he worn a mask that seemed frightening. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.( I think the military service and merits maybe inappropriate here, please replace them with better words)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou are painted their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)<br />
<br />
The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, which is rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brows and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk color. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in facial makeup of jing. (The meaning of “ The pattern ratio has changed as well” is vague, please detail it.)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 10:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Red<br />
<br />
Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.<br />
<br />
Black<br />
<br />
Black facial makeup gives people the impression that he is serious, rarely shows smiling expression and courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.<br />
<br />
Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious, and rarely smile and courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 10:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
White<br />
<br />
White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Kuai.<br />
<br />
White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Blue<br />
<br />
Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.<br />
<br />
Purple<br />
<br />
Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.<br />
<br />
Golden<br />
<br />
Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being like Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).<br />
<br />
Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural beings such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).<br />
<br />
The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:<br />
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and the strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for Chinese opera facial makeup, a great many foreign friends and domestic men of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)<br />
<br />
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
painted face 花脸<br />
<br />
clown 丑角<br />
<br />
Sheng 生<br />
<br />
Dan 旦<br />
<br />
Jing 净<br />
<br />
Chou 丑<br />
<br />
Qingyi 青衣<br />
<br />
xiaosheng 小生<br />
<br />
laosheng 老生<br />
<br />
wusheng 武生<br />
<br />
Gao Changgong 高长恭<br />
<br />
legend，romance 传奇剧<br />
<br />
Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神<br />
<br />
Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛<br />
<br />
Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
<br />
Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传<br />
<br />
===C. Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?<br />
<br />
3.What are the special features of Chou?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
5.What are the main features of facial makeup?<br />
<br />
6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.<br />
<br />
2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.<br />
<br />
3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.<br />
<br />
4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage. <br />
<br />
5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.<br />
<br />
6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.<br />
<br />
Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.<br />
<br />
Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.<br />
<br />
==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===<br />
<br />
<br />
Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.<br />
<br />
====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant. <br />
<br />
Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)<br />
<br />
Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.<br />
<br />
Interesting fact: Such famous people as Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg called this book the best and recommended it for everyone to read.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus.<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.<br />
<br />
In this section, I would recommend adding authors whose books Liu Cixin recommends reading.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====<br />
<br />
<br />
Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.<br />
<br />
Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.<br />
<br />
His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian.<br />
<br />
His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.<br />
<br />
An interesting fact that can also be added: In a year he watches about 100 films and reads 50 books in any way related to science fiction and Cyberpunk.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡蘦秀)====<br />
<br />
<br />
When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.<br />
<br />
Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Quang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.<br />
<br />
Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.<br />
<br />
Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.<br />
<br />
I also suggest adding that she has been involved in several new projects at the moment, such as the well-known Star Wars. Can you write something about this?--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Don't forget to add sources at the end of each paragraph.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 19:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
1. Science fiction - 科幻<br />
<br />
2. Fantasy - 奇幻<br />
<br />
3. Horizon - 地平线<br />
<br />
4. Broad - 拓宽<br />
<br />
5. Hybrid - 杂种<br />
<br />
6. The plot - 情节<br />
<br />
7. Garbage - 垃圾堆<br />
<br />
8. Heyday - 壮年<br />
<br />
9. Supernova - 超新星<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What was the first book written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?<br />
<br />
4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Supernova Era<br />
<br />
2. Memory of the Earth's Past<br />
<br />
3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）<br />
<br />
4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html<br />
<br />
2. Liu Cixin, Supernova Era, 2019. 352 pp.<br />
<br />
3. Chen Qiufan, Waste Tide, 2019. 342 pp.<br />
<br />
4. Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018. 530 pp.<br />
<br />
==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582==<br />
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===<br />
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<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582</center><br />
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====Introduction====<br />
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Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo,2018)<br />
<br />
Stilt is one of the folk dances of the ''Han'' nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from the "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing. It was bestowed by Emperor Qianlong, and has a history of more than 250 years. Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performing techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage protection project.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are, Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic. Among the 13 roles, the only serious one is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords, that's his work. Others like the young boy, just a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He goes fishing because of his fixed character. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to amuse the audience. Gong-players following drum-players, handsome and ugly, they are just like the final fighters. Then it comes the show of Kylin Songzi（麒麟送子）after they stop playing; Tuotou lying flat; Mr. Plaster and young master raising their waists; Yupo dancing Yangko behind, pulling his two legs; Fisherman using his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth; the young boy riding on Tuotou's waist like a lion. Then it follows the routine of going downhill. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance.(source)--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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Legs and feet of stilt-walkers must be agile. Jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing,2019)<br />
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Miliangtun Village Stilts as a renowned fair,are known for the features of risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as ''Yasha Searches the Sea'', ''Su Qin Carries Swords'', squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. Legs and feet must be agile, jumping the large bench is quite demanding that normal players can hardly accomplish. Each of the thirteen roles has its own talents. Tuotou is an adventurous figure who leads the team. The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. The centre of balance is extremely difficult to grasp. One must bend his knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. Stilt-walkers control the balance with waist, and the upper body and their feet must be coordinated to ensure the balance. Stilt-walkers step on the wooden stilts, swinging from side to side. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.(Sun Miao,2018)<br />
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There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair. It will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. Today, Miliangtun Village Stilts as the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, stands out among the stilt fairs in Beijing and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. Miliangtun Village Stilt is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny. A fixed set of performance routines has gradually formed after long-term drills since its founding. It is divided into lead in, head stilt command, separation in formal performance. Stilts-walkers individually perform difficult tricks such as the big jump and the onion-pulling, then amuse and perform in separation, ending with the show of Kylin Songzi, which indicates good luck and peace. Miliangtun Village Stilt has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:04, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯<br />
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stilts 高跷<br />
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intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
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folk dance 民间舞蹈<br />
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Toutou 陀头<br />
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Laozuozi 老坐子 <br />
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young boy 小二哥<br />
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young master 公子<br />
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Mr.Plaster 药先生<br />
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Choupo 丑婆<br />
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fisherman渔翁<br />
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Yupo 渔婆 <br />
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wood-cutter 柴翁<br />
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handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓<br />
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handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?<br />
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2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?<br />
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3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?<br />
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4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?<br />
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5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.<br />
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2. More than 250 years.<br />
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3. 13.<br />
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4. In 2006.<br />
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5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.<br />
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====References====<br />
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Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). 高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究. [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebei University. 河北大学.<br />
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Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究. ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'', (24)18.<br />
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Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 Miliangtun Village Stilts. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin<br />
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Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts. (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc<br />
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--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 英语笔译==<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of luck and good fortune. However, there is no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)<br />
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Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.<br />
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When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva to protect Buddha, people gradually have a good impression on it as a symbol of wisdom.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong at the end of the year. Local people called it “Nian”. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)<br />
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In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dancing in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
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===Northern lion dancing===<br />
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The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
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The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur even witrh the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance two people. Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:58, 15 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Southern lion dancing===<br />
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Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different “Ma Bu” or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
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Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom（AD 221-263）. Guan Gong lion is brave, Zhang Fei lion rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing through using different “Ma Bu” or horse stances by performers, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 10:02, 15 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
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In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Western Regions 西域<br />
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mount 坐骑<br />
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Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
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gong 锣<br />
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northern lion dancing 南狮<br />
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southern lion dancing 北狮<br />
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colorful silk ball 绣球<br />
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wooden stakes 木桩<br />
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spiritual resemblance神似<br />
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Liu Bei lion 刘备狮<br />
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Guan Gong lion 关公狮<br />
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Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮<br />
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sworn brothers 结义兄弟<br />
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horse stances 马步<br />
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Cai Qing 采青<br />
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lettuces 生菜<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?<br />
<br />
2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?<br />
<br />
3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?<br />
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4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?<br />
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7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.<br />
<br />
2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.<br />
<br />
3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.<br />
<br />
4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.<br />
<br />
5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.<br />
<br />
6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.<br />
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7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.<br />
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Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.<br />
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Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.<br />
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Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.<br />
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==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==<br />
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]<br />
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===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
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The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and Three Su(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called Three Su. What else, Su Xun is the their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25） <br />
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The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the ancient prose movement in the Song Dynasty, and Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the advacators of the "Ancient Prose Movement". Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe are called "Three Su". What's more, Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother. While Su Shi's teacher is Ouyang Xiu, who is also the teacher of Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, they both advocated prose and opposd parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their sucessive waves of innovation of ancient ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)<br />
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In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1. Han Yu'''<br />
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]<br />
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Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasty. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)<br />
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Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as “ The Decline of Eight Generations” by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called “Han Liu” with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu’s poems as “ Du poem Han pen” by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as “ The Article Giant” and “ Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations” with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory. (Hou Benta 2014, 135)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in advocating the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)<br />
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Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:06, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]<br />
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Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong , now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong ", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as" Liu Liuzhou " because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Changan and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.<br />
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Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", also known as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu ", with Liu Yuxi as " Liu Liu ", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu ". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)<br />
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He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He was a deep-thinking philosopher and litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude in writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)<br />
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He was a philosopher and litterateur with many wise ideas, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:00, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]<br />
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Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Minayang city in Sichuan province.<br />
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Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the “Liu Yi scholar”, which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone. He was a native in Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji’an city in Jiangxi province but born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was his representatives.<br />
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Ouyang Xiu’s poems, Cis and proses were all the crown of that time. His poetry was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style stressing on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the odd style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)<br />
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Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu’s ancient prose, and led the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, Ouyang Xiu not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation with his own unique style and high talent. It has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height. (Hou Benta 2014, 136)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''4. Su Xun'''<br />
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]<br />
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Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. In 19 years old, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later in 27 years old, he determined to study hard. After decade of hard work, he made a huge academic progress.<br />
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Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. He married Mrs. Cheng at the age of 19. Later when he was 27, he determined to study hard. After a decade of hard work, he made huge academic progress.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world ", to" apply to the present ". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of that social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)<br />
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Su Xun was a man of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Because he had a better understanding of social reality and was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot. (Zhou Zhenfu, 2016, 27)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''5. Su Shi'''<br />
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]<br />
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Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was native in Meishan in Sichuan . He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty .<br />
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Su Shi, with a fame as " Dongpo Jushi ", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding man in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. His was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)<br />
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Su Shi has made great achievements in poetry, Ci, prose, calligraphy, painting and so on. He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area, so he was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage. (Zhangjian 2019, 1)Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.<br />
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Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called “Su Men Four bachelors”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''6. Su Zhe'''<br />
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]<br />
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Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou , now Sichuan province. In the Jiayou second year (in 1057), he with his brother Su Shi climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode , such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)<br />
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Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Shi, together with his brother, climbed jinshi branch. Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He was good at politics and history. He discussed world affairs in some political works such as The New Theory and the Six States. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as The "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''7. Wang Anshi'''<br />
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]<br />
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Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo . He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province .<br />
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Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature aimed to serve the society first, that means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)<br />
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Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary propositions because his essays were mostly about the enlightenment of political decrees and suitable for world use. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''8. Zeng Gong'''<br />
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]<br />
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Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In Jiayou second year (in 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng" , including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
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Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text. (Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple and little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative. (Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.<br />
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Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments, for example, the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In these works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''<br />
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Although there was seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their respective cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)<br />
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Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the Middle Ancient period of Western history. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures respectively.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Comparison in ideology:<br />
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The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome. (Wang Yaping 2001, 8)Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.<br />
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The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the pre-Qin period and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Comparison in writing style:<br />
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The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)<br />
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The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient proses, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of the Tang Dynasty studied the simple language style of the pre-Qin period, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek period.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Comparison in literary form:<br />
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The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language. (He Lei 2017, 159) While although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theory and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said :" Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)<br />
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The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the six dynasties, but also laid a good creative foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家<br />
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Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》<br />
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Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
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parallel prose 骈文<br />
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The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰<br />
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The Article Giant 文章巨公<br />
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Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗<br />
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Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》<br />
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External collection 《外集》<br />
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The Teacher's Theory《师说》<br />
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Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期<br />
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writing in classical Chinese 文言文<br />
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feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史<br />
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official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史<br />
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Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》<br />
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Northern Song Dynasty 北宋<br />
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a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷<br />
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Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代<br />
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the crown of that time 一时之冠<br />
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Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐<br />
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Yu Feng 余风<br />
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The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》<br />
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the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动<br />
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Heng Lun 《衡论》<br />
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Duke Jingguo 荆国公<br />
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The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》<br />
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Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士<br />
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Ci writer 词人<br />
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Unconstrained Ci School豪放派<br />
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literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣<br />
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the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才<br />
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Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士<br />
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the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》<br />
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The New Theory《新论》<br />
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On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》<br />
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Ode 赋<br />
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The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》<br />
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Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾<br />
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the doctrine before the text先道后文<br />
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the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》<br />
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the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》<br />
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the Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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===C. Questions===<br />
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
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2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
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3.Do you know any representatives of Liu Zongyuan?<br />
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4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?<br />
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5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?<br />
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6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?<br />
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7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?<br />
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===D. Answers===<br />
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1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
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2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.<br />
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3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".<br />
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4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk Weng alone.<br />
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5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe. Also, Su Shi is the older brother.<br />
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6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
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7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.<br />
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===References===<br />
Fang Wenben 房本文. (2013). 士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.<br />
<br />
Hou Benta 候本塔. (2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.<br />
<br />
He Lei 何蕾. (2017). 中唐古文运动:社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.<br />
<br />
Lu Sihong 芦思宏. (2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.<br />
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Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.<br />
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Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).<br />
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Zhangjian 张剑. (2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).<br />
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Zhao Kun 赵鲲. (2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.<br />
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Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.<br />
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==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - Translation 英语笔译==<br />
[Please add your student no. and your major.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Pipa--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 08:22, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===1. A Brief Introduction===<br />
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[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]<br />
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Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)<br />
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Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. It is made of wood or bamboo, and its speaker box is half pear-shaped with 4 strings on it which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing)" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly and presses the strings with the left hand and plays them with the right hand. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.The Development of Pipa===<br />
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The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: First, the Qu Xiang pipa (curving-neck pipa) was introduced to China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important instrument. In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, making a breakthrough in timbre and performance techniques and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) <br />
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During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one skill in playing the pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. And it was replaced by Chinese traditional instrument playing style with a major breakthrough in playing skills and artistic expression. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but its initial plucking style had transitioned to finger-playing, and the posture of playing the pipa changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and playing skills of pipa performance were more mature, and its playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the audience of pipa performance has changed from less to more. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene. (Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing the pipa also kept vertical. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement in their performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so the common people without cultural accumulation often cannot appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===<br />
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The main reason for the formation of various Pipa schools in China was that the southwards moving of economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North school and the South school. Later, the North school collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)The Wuxi school<br />
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The Wuxi school belongs to the original North school, and is different from the South school in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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The Wuxi School belongs to the Northern School and differs from the Southern School in terms of finger rotation method. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi school was not as influential as the South school, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The Pinghu school<br />
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The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu school's rotation method of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)The Pudong School <br />
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Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both civil and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and rolling of four strings.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4)The Chongming school<br />
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The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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The Chongming school also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, the Chongming school pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuity in the slow, the order in the fast, and soft and lively sound. In terms of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(5)The Shanghai school<br />
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This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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===4.Traditional Pipa Music===<br />
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Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.<br />
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Military song emphasizes the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides", "Bury Me High", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan", "General Order in the Han Dynasty". [Maybe you could add the Pinyin version of these songs' names or add them into the terms and expressions so as to let readers know the Chinese.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on.<br />
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Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left-hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound inner talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to in a simple and moving melody or in a beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" and so on. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow", "High Mountain and Flowing Water", "Dragon Boat", "Flute and Drum at Sunset" and so on.<br />
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===5.References=== [References] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*[1]360百科 “琵琶”词条[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020<br />
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*[2]邓思佳. 中国琵琶流派问题及特征[Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa][J]. 艺术家,2020,(10):56.<br />
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*[3]周显顺,张玉莹. 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史[A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa][J]. 黄河之声,2018,(16):56.<br />
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*[4]成玄歌. 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例[The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa----taking Pinghu school and Pudong school as examples][J]. 艺术品鉴,2020,(29):51-52.<br />
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[Please correct your format of your references.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments<br />
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*汉化—Chinesization<br />
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*套曲—divertimentoes<br />
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*游牧民族—nomad tribe<br />
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*宫廷乐—court music<br />
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*轮指法—tremolo<br />
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*音色—timbre<br />
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*曲目—repertoire<br />
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*并弦—parallel string<br />
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*指法—fingering techniques<br />
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===7.Questions===<br />
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1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?<br />
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2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?<br />
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3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?<br />
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4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?<br />
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5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa? <br />
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===8.Answers===<br />
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1、Four.<br />
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2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.<br />
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3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. <br />
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4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school. <br />
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5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .<br />
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[Please change your sections into the following form.] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
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=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea === <br />
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The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing, or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale?<br />
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'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''<br />
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First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu.<br />
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People, especially women, believed that thanks to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to fight the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty that the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not completely eradicated in China. Probably, a more competent decision was made to give the werewolf woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.<br />
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People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. That time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears.<br />
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The theme of fatal love in the stories of werewolf foxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling, this suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their evil ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.<br />
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The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appear as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries.<br />
A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people.<br />
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In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox.<br />
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In addition, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be.<br />
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Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil.<br />
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Summing up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the first Chinese dynasties, the image of werewolf foxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.<br />
<br />
To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features.<br />
<br />
'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan''' <br />
<br />
In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons.<br />
<br />
Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky.<br />
<br />
Kitsune are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari himself is sometimes depicted as a fox. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.<br />
<br />
Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 12:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold. <br />
<br />
'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''<br />
<br />
Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores.<br />
<br />
In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Shape shifter – 成精<br />
<br />
Creature –生物<br />
<br />
Seductive –诱人的<br />
<br />
Damnation –诅咒<br />
<br />
Metaphor –隐喻<br />
<br />
Ascribe –属性<br />
<br />
Indigenous –土着<br />
<br />
Deity – 反面人物<br />
<br />
Liver – 肝脏<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Pu Song-ling. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. // Eastern literature. –2008. - P.280.<br />
<br />
2. Liu, Ken. (2012). Good Hunting.// Strange Horizons. - 2012. - p. 431.<br />
<br />
3. Kang Xiaofei. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender and popular religion in late imperial and modern China//Columbia University Press. – New York, 2006. – Pp.269.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?<br />
<br />
3. Could Kumiho become human forever?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.<br />
<br />
2.In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.<br />
<br />
3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.<br />
References ..................<br />
<br />
==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Chinese Characters<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
<br />
Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）<br />
<br />
===Evolution of Chinese characters===<br />
[[File:Character_Yuu_Semi.jpg|160px|thumb|right|A Dinging Table]]<br />
Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
====Oracle bone script====<br />
<br />
Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).<br />
<br />
====Bronze script====<br />
<br />
In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.<br />
<br />
====Seal script====<br />
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly. <br />
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.<br />
<br />
<br />
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) began to be used in Qin State.<br />
and all of the above three points ignored the quote, please add them up.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Modern characters===<br />
====Clerical script====<br />
<br />
After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.<br />
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.<br />
<br />
After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people.Because of its lengthened and curved lines, it took more time to write.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Regular script====<br />
<br />
Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people generation after generation even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage.<br />
<br />
Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. quote missing --[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Formation of Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
====Pictograms====<br />
<br />
Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."<br />
<br />
====Pictophonetic compounds====<br />
<br />
Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Ideograph ====<br />
<br />
Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Logical aggregates====<br />
<br />
Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Associate transformation====<br />
<br />
Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others. quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Borrowing ====<br />
<br />
Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin)<br />
<br />
===Simplification of Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.(简化字的昨天、今天和明天. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2010.) quote missing--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文<br />
<br />
2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文<br />
<br />
3.Small seal characters 小篆<br />
<br />
4.Official script 隶书<br />
<br />
5.Regular script 楷书<br />
<br />
6.Cursive writing 草书<br />
<br />
7.Cang Jie 仓颉<br />
<br />
<br />
8.Clerical script 楷书<br />
<br />
9.Su Shi 苏轼<br />
<br />
10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之<br />
<br />
11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询<br />
<br />
12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿<br />
<br />
13.Pictograms 象形<br />
<br />
14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事<br />
<br />
15.Ideograph 会意<br />
<br />
16.Logical aggregates 形声<br />
<br />
17.Associate transformation 转注<br />
<br />
18.Borrowing 假借<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
1.How many Chinese characters are there?<br />
<br />
2.How many letters are in the Chinese alphabet?<br />
<br />
3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .<br />
<br />
2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.<br />
<br />
3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms<br />
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
2.刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.<br />
<br />
3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188<br />
<br />
4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.<br />
<br />
==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - Student No.20207080586 - 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===A.Chinese Knots===<br />
<br />
====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It <br />
originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.<br />
<br />
The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now,Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and <br />
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decoration and aesthetics,which <br />
earned the knot its name.<br />
<br />
====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥<br />
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井<br />
结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.<br />
<br />
Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====<br />
<br />
Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views <br />
on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. ut it Money in China not only <br />
represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money". Therefore, for <br />
the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes <br />
"good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful <br />
patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====<br />
<br />
As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.<br />
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the <br />
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is <br />
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.<br />
<br />
====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots.The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots ,so as to make a group of varied knots.<br />
<br />
The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.<br />
<br />
====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of <br />
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of <br />
dragons.Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of <br />
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交<br />
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.<br />
<br />
====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====<br />
<br />
=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====<br />
<br />
From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of <br />
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient <br />
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross <br />
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.Different Shapes=====<br />
<br />
Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have <br />
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.<br />
<br />
====6.References====<br />
<br />
*李库.符号学视角下的中国结解读.[J]艺海2016(08) : 125-126.<br />
<br />
*李立芳，孙建君.民间绳结[M].武汉：湖北美术出版社，2002.<br />
<br />
*许星.路论中国结[J].丝绸,2004(02) : 46-47.<br />
<br />
*邬红芳.中国结的意象美学特征[J]装饰，2004(09) : 120-121.<br />
<br />
*王眯珠，孙荪，曲洪建.怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[J].丝绸，2014(11):43-50.<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Double Coin Knot 双钱结<br />
<br />
Good Luck Knot 吉祥结<br />
<br />
Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结<br />
<br />
Sauvastika Knot 万字结<br />
<br />
Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot 盘长结<br />
<br />
Round Brocade Knot 团锦结<br />
<br />
Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结<br />
<br />
Cross Knot 十字结<br />
<br />
Ping Knot 平结<br />
<br />
tie the knot 永结同心<br />
<br />
luck money 压岁钱<br />
<br />
the bishop's identity 主教职权<br />
<br />
===C. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the Chinese knot?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?<br />
<br />
3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.<br />
<br />
2.<br />
<br />
3.<br />
<br />
==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies 201921080010==<br />
<br />
[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.<br />
<br />
===A. Panku Created the World===<br />
<br />
In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
<br />
At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape.<br />
<br />
===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===<br />
<br />
[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]<br />
<br />
Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).<br />
<br />
As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity (Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6). Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc.<br />
<br />
During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.<br />
<br />
===C. Fushi Taught the People=== <br />
<br />
In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .<br />
<br />
Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36). This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow.<br />
<br />
Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute), (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace. <br />
<br />
===D. Water War===<br />
<br />
Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).<br />
<br />
Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).<br />
<br />
In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.<br />
<br />
===E. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Chinese Mythology 中国神话<br />
<br />
Panku 盤古<br />
<br />
Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳<br />
<br />
Nuwa 女媧<br />
<br />
Fushi 伏羲<br />
<br />
Water War 水战<br />
<br />
===F. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?<br />
<br />
2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?<br />
<br />
3. What did Fushi taught to people?<br />
<br />
4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?<br />
<br />
===G. Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.<br />
<br />
2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.<br />
<br />
3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.<br />
<br />
4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group.<br />
<br />
2. Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.<br />
<br />
3. https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg<br />
<br />
4. https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 13:08, 15 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 06:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese gods and immortals===<br />
<br />
====Chinese mythology system====<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)<br />
<br />
The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)<br />
<br />
Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)<br />
<br />
====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)<br />
<br />
There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)<br />
<br />
====Eight immortals====<br />
<br />
The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)<br />
<br />
The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) <br />
<br />
The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
immortals 仙 <br />
<br />
mythology 神话，神话学<br />
<br />
cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观 <br />
<br />
monolithic 整体（式）的<br />
<br />
the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战<br />
<br />
pantheistic 泛神论的 <br />
<br />
polytheistic 多神论的<br />
<br />
Three Pure Ones 三清<br />
<br />
anthropomorphic 人格化的<br />
<br />
tutelary 守护神 <br />
<br />
deity 神<br />
<br />
Buddha 佛 <br />
<br />
Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
<br />
Amitabha 阿弥陀佛 <br />
<br />
Amitāyus 无量寿佛<br />
<br />
celestial 天的 <br />
<br />
Bodhisattva 菩萨 <br />
<br />
Pure Land 极乐世界 <br />
<br />
vessels 法器<br />
<br />
Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙 <br />
<br />
Taoist 道家的，道士<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?<br />
<br />
2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?<br />
<br />
3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.<br />
<br />
2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".<br />
<br />
3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). Marxism and Religion. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.<br />
<br />
[2]Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3]Bai Yang. Chinese Huamn History. Time Literature & Art Press, 1987.<br />
<br />
[4]Olson, Stuart Alve (2002). Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun. Bear & Company.<br />
<br />
[5]Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism<br />
<br />
[6]Hu Yanan. From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty [D].Harbin Normal University,2020.<br />
<br />
[7]Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[8]Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press,1987.<br />
<br />
[9]Little, Stephen (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. The Art Institute of Chicago.<br />
<br />
==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 MTI==<br />
[suggestion:Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588, here, your major is missing.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)<br />
[suggestion:……and Confucianism Renaissance as its deep. Here, "deep" may be replaced by "depth".<br />
The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, (Here, you can add a word "and")it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)<br />
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)<br />
[suggestion:However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. (Here, this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may change the word "writing" into "wrote".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65) <br />
<br />
====Representatives====<br />
<br />
'''1.Han Yu'''<br />
<br />
Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)<br />
[suggestion:Han Yu (768 – Here, you may delete the space.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC) 824), courtesy name Tuizhi, also known his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. (And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)<br />
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'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
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Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)<br />
[suggestion:(773 – Here, you may delete the space. 819);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
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Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)<br />
[suggestion:(1007 – Here, you may delete the space. 1072);(And this sentence doesn't have a predicate, so you may add "is" before the word "also", and "for" after "known".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)<br />
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Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)<br />
[suggestion:Except(Here, you may change "Except" into "Besides".) for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Masterworks====<br />
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Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)<br />
[suggestion:Except for(Here, you may change "Except for" into "Besides".) the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu,……]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Influence====<br />
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The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China, and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家<br />
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Classical Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
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''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》<br />
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''On Teachers'' 《师说》<br />
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''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》<br />
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''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》<br />
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''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》<br />
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''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》<br />
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''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》<br />
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''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
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2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?<br />
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3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
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2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.<br />
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3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.<br />
[suggestion: The reason what…….(Here, you may change "what" into "why".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====References====<br />
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Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.<br />
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Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.<br />
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Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.<br />
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Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.<br />
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Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.<br />
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Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.<br />
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==The tradition of Red envelope and Lucky money - Ha, Thi Thu Hang - 201921080008==<br />
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===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky money tradition===<br />
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In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, a red envelope or a red packet (Mandarin: hóngbāo) is a monetary gift which is given during holidays or special occasions such as weddings, graduation or the birth of a baby.<br />
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====The Legend====<br />
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In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called sui (Chinese: 祟) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called Shou Sui (守祟).<br />
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One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone ih the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.<br />
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There are also other legends about this custom related to the son Duong Quy Phi of the Tang dynasty - China and the Qin dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.<br />
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====The tradition====<br />
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The Chinese custom of lucky money is called "Hongbao". Chinese people really like red, so the lucky money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The red envelope is called yasui qian (压岁钱 /Yāsuìqián/), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a red envelope are wished another safe and pea Sending red envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese lucky money must avoid the number 4 and be sealed. The children, after receiving the lucky money, do not open it immediately, but have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it, it is impolite to open a red envelope in front of the person who gives it to you. The meaning of this is for the lucky money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese lucky money.<br />
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Red envelopes, also called red packets, lucky money, or "hongbao" in Chinese, "li shi" / "li xi" in Vietnamese are a popular monetary gift given on some important occasions or festivals in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Chinese New Year (Spring Festival). During Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into.<br />
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====Outside of China====<br />
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The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent.<br />
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Each country has different ways of lucky money and changes over time, but the basic custom of lucky money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the new year.<br />
In Vietnam, the Lunar New Year is one of the great holidays of the year. The traditional New Year's customs are still preserved, in which the lucky money is typical. On the first day of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give lucky money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of lucky money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give lucky money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.<br />
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In Japan, lucky money is called Otoshidama. Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese lucky money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. Otoshidama red envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese red envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the lucky money will be written on the red envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each Otoshidama red envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky new year.<br />
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In Korea, the lucky money is called Sabae. On New Year's Day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive lucky money together with wishes for health and peace in the new year. The lucky money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems...<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Luckymoney 利市 /Lì shì/ <br />
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Red envelope 紅包 /Hóngbāo/ <br />
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Confucianism 儒教 /Rújiào/ <br />
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Thought of Confucius 孔子思想 /Kǒngzǐ sīxiǎng/<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar new year lucky money to children？<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called sui (Chinese: 祟) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called Shou Sui (守祟).<br />
One tale of the folklore, years ago, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone ih the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.<br />
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===References===<br />
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]<br />
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==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 student No. and 专业 are missing --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
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==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===<br />
==='''The Twenty-four Solar Terms'''===[maybe this should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. The orgin and development of the twenty-four solar terms===<br />
===1. The Orgin and Development of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
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"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the quotation mark in English and in Chinese should be distinguished.In Chinese, it is “”;in English, it is ""]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:37, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature, during the Warring States period, the complete twenty-four solar terms were basically formed, and during the Qin and Han dynasties, the complete twenty-four solar terms system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
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By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: winter solstice, summer solstice, spring equinox and autumn equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete twenty-four solar terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）[suggestion:the last sentence is too long to read.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:42, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The definition and classification of the 24 solar terms===<br />
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)<br />
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"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if you use Arabic numerals or its English version uniformly in the whole passage; please pay attention to the difference of quotation mark in Chinese and English.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the meddle part of a month is called qi (气). ( Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it. ) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)<br />
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A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[maybe there is a wrong word "meddle", it should be "middle" .]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)<br />
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The 8 solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the 4 solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016:34-35)[suggestion:it will be better if a uniform numeral format is used.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Folklore of the 24 solar terms===<br />
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===[the first letters should be capitalized.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three areas: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.((Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the twenty-four solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. <br />
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The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. [suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan. Zou Yating 2020)<br />
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These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of the Begining of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of the Begining of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of the Begining of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 16:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Importance and values of of the 24 solar terms===<br />
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the "of" should be deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.1 Importance in ancient times===<br />
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====[the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.<br />
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The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people.[suggestion:quotation is missing.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
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Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is the most basic function of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humanity in accordance with natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of ancient people. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were more than a time system, they were also a connotation of life, an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立), that is, the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter , have always been important festivals in history. At the time of these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival, which is also known as China's four traditional festivals, along with Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals .(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Values in modern society===<br />
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====[suggestion:it will be better if the first letters are capitalized; the subtitle should add a mark as "="]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming. Chang He 2020)<br />
<br />
In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)[suggestion:a comma should be used between the two authors in references, not a full stop.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
It still has its practical values in modern society.Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations. Specifically, respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, showing filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and reflect the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) <br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) [suggestion:maybe it will be better if "reflect" is deleted.]--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
the Beginning of Spring 立春<br />
<br />
Beginning of Autumn 立秋<br />
<br />
Rain Water 雨水 <br />
<br />
End of Heat 处暑<br />
<br />
Insects Awakening 惊蛰 <br />
<br />
White Dew 白露<br />
<br />
Spring Equinox 春分 <br />
<br />
Autumnal Equinox 秋分<br />
<br />
Fresh Green 清明 <br />
<br />
Cold Dew 寒露<br />
<br />
Grain Rain 谷雨 <br />
<br />
First Frost 霜降 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Summer 立夏 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Winter 立冬<br />
<br />
Lesser Fullness 小满 <br />
<br />
Light Snow 小雪<br />
<br />
Grain in Ear 芒种 <br />
<br />
Heavy Snow 大雪<br />
<br />
Summer Solstice 夏至<br />
<br />
Winter Solstice 冬至<br />
<br />
Lesser Heat 大暑<br />
<br />
Lesser Cold 小寒<br />
<br />
Greater Heat 立春 <br />
<br />
Greater Cold 大寒<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?<br />
1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 01:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?<br />
<br />
3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？<br />
<br />
4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List? <br />
<br />
5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?<br />
<br />
6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.<br />
<br />
2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.<br />
<br />
3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice<br />
<br />
4.In 2016.<br />
<br />
5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.<br />
<br />
6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)<br />
<br />
Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml<br />
<br />
Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml <br />
<br />
He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html<br />
<br />
==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
'''1.Brief introduction'''<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name.(Wu Ting 2007, 20)<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre-Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2.About the author'''<br />
<br />
Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)<br />
<br />
'''3.Content introduction'''<br />
<br />
It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)<br />
<br />
====Masterpieces====<br />
<br />
'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for free love and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''<br />
<br />
''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality, It has strong artistic appeal.(Wu Ting 2007, 41)<br />
<br />
''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man and joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for a reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Evaluation====<br />
<br />
'''1.Contributions'''<br />
<br />
The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) <br />
<br />
The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of the Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literary history and music history. There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but the narrative is attached to the lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2.Shortcomings'''<br />
<br />
There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' . For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution.(Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)<br />
<br />
There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Wu Ting 吴婷.(2007).乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究[D][A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].南昌:南昌大学 Nanchang:Nanchang University (12)20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Yizhi 喻意志.(2002).乐府诗集成书研究[D][A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].上海:上海师范大学 Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University (10)105-107.<br />
<br />
Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry''].Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poetry'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》<br />
<br />
Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞<br />
<br />
Yanshe songs燕射歌辞<br />
<br />
Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Hengchui songs横吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Xianghe songs相和歌辞<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》<br />
<br />
''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？<br />
<br />
2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?<br />
<br />
3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.In Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.<br />
<br />
3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:38, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisines, Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 202070080591 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Eight Major Cuisines of China===<br />
<br />
====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisine====<br />
1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)<br />
<br />
====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====<br />
<br />
China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavor. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted around. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)<br />
<br />
China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====<br />
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)<br />
<br />
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====<br />
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one <br />
of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)<br />
<br />
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====<br />
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables. Many vegetables originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)<br />
<br />
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====<br />
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct features are their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====<br />
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh and sweet and with delicate elegance. Jiangsu Cuisine is well known for its careful selection of ingredients, its meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====<br />
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)<br />
<br />
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====<br />
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessaries in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)<br />
<br />
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====<br />
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more attention on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking method are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)<br />
<br />
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====<br />
<br />
Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. There are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China, but it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are also differences in names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)<br />
<br />
There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 08:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.<br />
<br />
Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.<br />
<br />
Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.<br />
<br />
Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．<br />
<br />
Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
pot-stewed fowl 卤味<br />
<br />
stewing and simmering 炖，煨<br />
<br />
prickly ash 花椒<br />
<br />
fermented soybean 豆鼓<br />
<br />
Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉<br />
<br />
Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙<br />
<br />
Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁<br />
<br />
Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?<br />
<br />
2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?<br />
<br />
3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Eight<br />
<br />
2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes. <br />
<br />
3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
==Paper Cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 2020英语口译 Interpreting==<br />
<br />
Chinese Paper Cutting 剪纸<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With a long history, papercutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago in China according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities which people pray for their ancestor and god. Later, with the widespread papercutting technique and people’s growing love for it, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, papercutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016: 3)<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk fabrics, as well as cloth, silk, etc., were cut into certain shapes to decorate, which lay a solid foundation for the art of papercutting. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7)<br />
<br />
As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to the modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan（吐鲁番）, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Folk Handicrafts)<br />
<br />
In the dynasty the custom of papercutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, and each owns its name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower shape was called “Huasheng”, the people shaped “rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in(正仓院) in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015: 7-8)<br />
<br />
By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous development of economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, papercutting was used for crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (蓝印花布) (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
The art of papercutting became mature in Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed papercutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting works as artwork. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern (夹纱灯) as an representative. It is a lantern with papercutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
Since its birth, the art of papercutting has never been interrupted.In its long history, it evolved in art and pottery, printing, dyeing and other art intertwined, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
===Five Regions===<br />
<br />
The distribution area of Chinese folk paper-cutting, according to the historical changes, geography, ecological environment changes, cultural development differences and paper-cutting itself in the aesthetic, style of mutual influence and so on, for a comprehensive consideration, can be divided into five regions: (Wang 2006:106)<br />
<br />
Northeast Changbai Mountains area: It mainly covers Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang province, Liaoning province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the papercutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006:106)<br />
<br />
Yellow river basin area: With the north of Shaanxi papercutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006:106)<br />
<br />
Yangtze River basin area: It covers papercutting in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu provinces. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, papercutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006:106)<br />
<br />
The southeastern coastal area: It is highlighted by the papercutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest, tends to be elegant and common appreciation. (Wang 2006:106)<br />
<br />
Southwestern minority areas: It is characterized by papercutting in the minorities in Yunan and Guizhou province. Many paper cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of papercutting. (Wang 2006:107)<br />
<br />
===Techniques===<br />
<br />
There are various ways to make papercutting works, include folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting(熏样剪纸), color-collage paper-cutting, paper-cutting and tongcun paper-cutting , but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
Mono-colored papercutting refer to cut or curve with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. Since ancient times, the Chinese revered the red, whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, featuring warmth, passion and also brightness and happiness. However, mono-colored papercutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances and situations, among which white papercutting is mostly used as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
Dyed papercutting also called dotted paper cuttings. The paper is mostly Xuan paper, a kind of thin white paper absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed.After the dying process, the colors become rich and elegant, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed papercutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi and Guangdong province, among which the dotted paper cuttings in Weixian, Hebei is very unique. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
===Themes===<br />
<br />
Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals, animals and birds, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions and pavilions, totem worship(图腾崇拜), religious belief. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs find its expression in every aspects of life.Papercutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures and Spring Festival couplets (春联) to create an lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015: 8)<br />
<br />
It is the rural working women who are the majority of creator of the delicate papercutting. When they were five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they began to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk papercutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They are devoutly devoted to the papercutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, prosperity, health and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) 中国民间剪纸史[The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts] 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.<br />
<br />
Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) 剪纸 [paper-cut] 北京中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.<br />
<br />
Lu Zhongmin. (2002) Folk Handicrafts. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Dyed papercutting 点染剪纸<br />
<br />
Mono-colored papercutting 单色剪纸<br />
<br />
Shōsō-in 正仓院<br />
<br />
smoked paper-cutting熏样剪纸<br />
<br />
Spring Festival couplets 春联<br />
<br />
totem worship图腾崇拜<br />
<br />
Turfan吐鲁番<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Where was the earliest papercutting found in China?<br />
<br />
2. How many regions the distribution of Papercutting can be divided into?<br />
<br />
3. Which two types of papercutting are the most common ones?<br />
<br />
4. What could be the themes of the papercutting?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.<br />
<br />
2. Mono-colored papercutting and dyed papercutting.<br />
<br />
3. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area and Southwestern minority areas.<br />
<br />
4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, birds and animals, animals and birds, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions and pavilions, totem worship, religious belief.<br />
<br />
==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)<br />
<br />
Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)<br />
<br />
When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang_Zhongjing.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
(2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历[J] [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.<br />
<br />
Zhang Maoyun 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.<br />
<br />
Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.<br />
<br />
Zhang Deli 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景[J] [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.<br />
<br />
Tan Rongzhou 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献[J] [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.<br />
<br />
Zhao Qingxin 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景[J] ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.<br />
<br />
Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下[J] [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
medical sage 医圣<br />
<br />
''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》<br />
<br />
treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治<br />
<br />
yamen 衙门<br />
<br />
Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒<br />
<br />
Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒<br />
<br />
look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切<br />
<br />
Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?<br />
<br />
2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?<br />
<br />
3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?<br />
<br />
4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?<br />
<br />
5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
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1. Chinese Medical Sage.<br />
<br />
2. Changsha magistrate.<br />
<br />
3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.<br />
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4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.<br />
<br />
5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11478820201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:34:21Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
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The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
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The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
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The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
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Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
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The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
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chariot n. 战车<br />
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mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
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Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
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Pit 1 一号坑<br />
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Pit 2 二号坑<br />
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Pit 3 三号坑<br />
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kiln n. 窑<br />
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Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
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World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
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2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
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3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
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2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
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3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
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4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
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5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
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Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
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Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''B.History'''<br />
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China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
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Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try(<span style="color:red">tried</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened(<span style="color:red">threatening</span>) the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw(<span style="color:red">flaws</span>) in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can(<span style="color:red">could</span>) survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
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In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
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[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11478520201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:32:42Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
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China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
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Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
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Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
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Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
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===Terms and expressions===<br />
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石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
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望柱 baluster<br />
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桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
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栏杆 balustrade<br />
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燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
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2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
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3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
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4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
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2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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====Milk Tea====<br />
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We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
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Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
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Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
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Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
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Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
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Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
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====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
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When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try(<span style="color:red">tried</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened(<span style="color:red">threatening</span>) the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw(<span style="color:red">flaws</span>) in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can(<span style="color:red">could</span>) survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
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This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Vocabulary List===<br />
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lattice 格心<br />
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diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
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a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
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swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
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fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
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the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
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the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
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2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
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2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
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3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
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*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
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*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
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*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
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* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
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==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
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===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
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As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
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Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
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2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
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2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
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4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
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The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
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Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
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*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
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*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
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*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
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*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
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*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11477920201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:29:35Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
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===Terms and expressions===<br />
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石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
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望柱 baluster<br />
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桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
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栏杆 balustrade<br />
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燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
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2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
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3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
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4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
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2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
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Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
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Applying wax<br />
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Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
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Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
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Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
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Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
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Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
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Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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batik 蜡染<br />
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laxie 蜡缬<br />
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huixie 灰缬<br />
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jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
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jiaxie 夹缬<br />
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Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
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The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
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The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
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single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
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multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
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Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
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Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
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Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
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Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
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Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
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anil 木蓝属植物<br />
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leguminous豆科<br />
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safflower红花 <br />
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madder茜草<br />
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yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
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turmeric姜黄<br />
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Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
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===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
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Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
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2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
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When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
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3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
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Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
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China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
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5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
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The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
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<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
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Rope Dart<br />
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The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
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These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
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dagger halberd 戟 <br />
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spiked mace 殳<br />
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soft whip 软鞭<br />
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bar mace 锏<br />
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dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
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In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
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===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
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Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
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First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
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However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
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===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
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Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
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===Mohism===<br />
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Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
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During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
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1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
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2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
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3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
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7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
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8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
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====A. Writing Brush====<br />
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Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
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In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
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In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
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Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
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笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
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笔杆 pen-holder<br />
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宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
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羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
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鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
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====C. Questions====<br />
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1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
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2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
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3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
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4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
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2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
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3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
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4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
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*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
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*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
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*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
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==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
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===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
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===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
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===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
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===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
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According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
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Yandi 炎帝<br />
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Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
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Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
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Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
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the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
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The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
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Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
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Nian 年<br />
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new year 新年<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
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She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
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2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
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The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
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3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
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Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
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[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
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[3]百度百科<br />
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[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
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[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
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[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
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1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
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Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
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2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
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[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
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====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
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In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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2.Rice powder<br />
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In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
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“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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====II.Color make up====<br />
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If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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1.Blush<br />
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Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
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Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
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[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
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2.Lipsctick<br />
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Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
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[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
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3.Eyebrows<br />
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It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
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Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
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In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
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[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
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====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
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[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
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1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
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The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
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In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
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*White make up<br />
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Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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*Red make up<br />
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In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
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As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
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After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
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For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
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3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
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After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
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In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
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However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
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The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
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4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
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Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
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Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
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====References====<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
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*胭脂 - rouge<br />
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*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
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*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
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2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
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3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
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4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
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5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
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6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.Rice powder.<br />
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2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
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3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
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5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
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6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11477620201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:27:15Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
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===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
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China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
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In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
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The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
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There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
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The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
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The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
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Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
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During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
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Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
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There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
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Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
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''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
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Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
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Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
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Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
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chrysanthemum菊花<br />
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''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
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''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
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''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
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''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
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''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
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(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
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2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
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3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
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4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
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5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
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6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
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7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
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8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
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--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
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1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
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2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
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3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
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4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
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5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
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6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
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7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
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8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
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--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
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Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
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Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
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Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
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Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
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Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
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===History===<br />
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According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
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Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
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The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
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Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
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===Types===<br />
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Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
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China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
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===Technical Process===<br />
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Preparation <br />
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Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
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Applying wax<br />
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Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
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Dip-dyeing<br />
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Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
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Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Dewaxing<br />
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After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Materials ===<br />
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The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
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The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
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In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Patterns===<br />
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From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
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Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
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Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
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The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
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Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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batik 蜡染<br />
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laxie 蜡缬<br />
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huixie 灰缬<br />
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jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
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jiaxie 夹缬<br />
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Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
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The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
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===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
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Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
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Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
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Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
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Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
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Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
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Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
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Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
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reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
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ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
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Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
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Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
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Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
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Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
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Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
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Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
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Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
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Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
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Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
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Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
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Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
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Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
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The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
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Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
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Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
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Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
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The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
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Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
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Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
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Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
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Golden Summit 金顶<br />
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Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
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Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
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Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
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Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
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nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
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妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
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2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
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3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
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2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
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3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
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4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
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5. Mount Putuo.<br />
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6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
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Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
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===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
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One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
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In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
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===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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teahouse 茶馆<br />
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scholarly family书香世家<br />
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imperial examination 科举制度<br />
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underworld 阴曹地府<br />
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fox spirit 狐妖<br />
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salt merchant 盐商<br />
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forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
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3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
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4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
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2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
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3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
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4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
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5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
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Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
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the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
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The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
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Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] <br />
<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
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Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
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2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
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2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
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4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
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The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
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Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
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*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
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*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
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*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
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*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
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*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
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*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
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*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
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*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
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*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
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*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
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|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
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|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
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|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
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|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
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|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
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|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
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|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
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|}<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
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2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
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3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
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4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
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5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
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6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
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2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
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3.Merchants.<br />
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4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
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5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
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6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
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--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
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[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
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====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
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In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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2.Rice powder<br />
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In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
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“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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====II.Color make up====<br />
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If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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1.Blush<br />
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Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
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Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
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[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
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2.Lipsctick<br />
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Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
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[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
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3.Eyebrows<br />
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It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
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Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11476920201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:22:28Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
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The meteor hammer <br />
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The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
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Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
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Rope Dart<br />
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The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
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Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
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Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
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A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
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These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
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It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
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===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
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trident 叉<br />
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dagger halberd 戟 <br />
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spiked mace 殳<br />
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soft whip 软鞭<br />
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bar mace 锏<br />
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dagger axe 戈<br />
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rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
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Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
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2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
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Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
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3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
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Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
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4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
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Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
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chariot n. 战车<br />
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mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
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Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
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Pit 1 一号坑<br />
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Pit 2 二号坑<br />
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Pit 3 三号坑<br />
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kiln n. 窑<br />
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Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
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World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
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2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
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3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
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4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
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5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
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6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
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2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
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3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
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4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
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5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
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6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
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2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
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3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
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4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
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Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''A.Categories'''<br />
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Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
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Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
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One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
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salt merchant 盐商<br />
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forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
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2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
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3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
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7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
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8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
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The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
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1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
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2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
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3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] <br />
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4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
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5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
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6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
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In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
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However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
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Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
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Rectifier 中正官<br />
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Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
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Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
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Region 州<br />
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Commandery 郡<br />
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superior-superior 上上<br />
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superior-intermediary 上中<br />
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superior-inferior 上下<br />
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intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
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intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
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intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
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inferior-superior 下上<br />
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inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
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and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
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Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
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Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
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2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
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3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
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4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
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2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
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3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
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4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
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2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
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3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
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==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
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From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
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Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
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The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
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The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
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In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
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In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
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[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Swastika lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
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This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Vocabulary List===<br />
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lattice 格心<br />
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diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
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a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
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swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
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fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
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the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
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the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
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2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
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2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
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3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
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*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
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*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
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*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
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*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
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*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
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* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
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* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
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==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
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===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
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As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
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4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
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====References====<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
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*胭脂 - rouge<br />
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*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
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*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
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2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
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3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
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4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
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5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
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6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.Rice powder.<br />
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2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
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3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
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5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
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6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11476420201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:19:49Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
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We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
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Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
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Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
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Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
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Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
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Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
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====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
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When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
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When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
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The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
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The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
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Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
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Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
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====1.Advantages====<br />
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Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
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Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.Disadvantages====<br />
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Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
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Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====References====<br />
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1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
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2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
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3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
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4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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Milk tea 奶茶<br />
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Spice 香辛料<br />
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Rudiment 雏形<br />
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Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
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Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
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Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
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Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
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Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
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Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
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Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
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Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
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Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
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Pecans 碧根果<br />
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Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
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Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
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Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
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Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
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Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
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2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
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British colonists.<br />
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3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
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Britain.<br />
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4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
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Sexytea.<br />
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5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
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No.<br />
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6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
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Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
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==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
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Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
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In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
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The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
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There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
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The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
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The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
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Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
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During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
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Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
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There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
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mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
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Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
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Pit 2 二号坑<br />
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Pit 3 三号坑<br />
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kiln n. 窑<br />
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Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
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World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
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3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
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2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
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3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
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4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
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In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
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The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
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Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
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1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
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2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
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3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
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===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
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1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
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2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
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3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
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There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
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1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
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2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
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3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
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4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
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Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
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1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
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2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
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3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
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In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
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[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
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ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
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Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
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Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
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Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
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===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
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Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
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Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
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Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
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Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
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A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
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A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
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A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
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A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
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A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
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===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
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* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
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* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
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* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
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* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
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* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
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* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
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* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
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* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
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* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
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===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
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Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
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===Mount Wutai=== <br />
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Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
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===Mount Putuo=== <br />
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Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
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===Mount Emei=== <br />
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Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
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===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
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Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
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===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
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Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
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Buddhism n.佛教<br />
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shrine n.圣地<br />
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pullulate v.大量产生<br />
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Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
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Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
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Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
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Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
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Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
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Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
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Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
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Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
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reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
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ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
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Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
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Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
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Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
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Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
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Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
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Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
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Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
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Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
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Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
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Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
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Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
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Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
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The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
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Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
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Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
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Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
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The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
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Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
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Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
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Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
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Golden Summit 金顶<br />
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Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
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Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
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Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
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Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
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nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
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妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
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2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
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3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
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4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
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5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
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6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
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2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
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3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
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4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
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5. Mount Putuo.<br />
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6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
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===References===<br />
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1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
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2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
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3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
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4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
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5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
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The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
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In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
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In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
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Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
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Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
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3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
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7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
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8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click <br />
[[File:Example.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
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The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
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In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
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In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
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[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
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This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Vocabulary List===<br />
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lattice 格心<br />
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diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
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a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
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swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
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fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
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the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
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the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
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2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
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2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
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3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
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As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11476120201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:18:07Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click <br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
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[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
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This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Swastika lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
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This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Vocabulary List===<br />
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lattice 格心<br />
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diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
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a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
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swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
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fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
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the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
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the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
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2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
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2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
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===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
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As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
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Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
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2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
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2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
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4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:The_Nine-Grade_Official_Selection_System.jpg&diff=114753File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg2020-12-18T13:14:00Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11475120201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:13:22Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
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Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
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Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
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Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
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===Terms and expressions===<br />
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石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
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望柱 baluster<br />
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桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
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栏杆 balustrade<br />
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燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
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2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
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3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
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4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
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2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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====Milk Tea====<br />
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We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
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Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
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Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
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Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
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Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
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Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
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====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
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When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
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When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[Media:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
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|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11474320201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:09:18Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''A.Categories'''<br />
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Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
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Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
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Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''B.History'''<br />
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China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
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China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
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Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
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Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
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Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
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===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
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[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
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[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
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[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
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===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
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===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
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Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
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In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, saw the most downloads among iPhone users across the world. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok share the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content and no share between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
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The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often with background music. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. “The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Demonstrating dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
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Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spend most of their spare time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
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1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
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2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
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3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
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===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
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1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
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2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
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3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
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There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
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1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
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2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
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3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
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4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
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Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
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1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
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2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
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3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
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In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
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[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
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ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
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Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
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Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
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Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
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===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
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Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
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Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
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Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
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Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
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A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
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A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
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A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
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A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
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A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
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===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
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* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
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* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
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* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
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* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
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* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
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* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
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* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
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* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
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* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
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===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
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Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
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===Mount Wutai=== <br />
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Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
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===Mount Putuo=== <br />
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Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
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===Mount Emei=== <br />
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Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
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===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
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Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
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===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
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Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
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Buddhism n.佛教<br />
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shrine n.圣地<br />
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pullulate v.大量产生<br />
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Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
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Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
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Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
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Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
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Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
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Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
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Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
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Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
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reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
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ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
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Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
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Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
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Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
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Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
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Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
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Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
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Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
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Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
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Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
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Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
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Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
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Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
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The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
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Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
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Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
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Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
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The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
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Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
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Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
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Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
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Golden Summit 金顶<br />
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Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
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Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
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Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
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Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
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nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
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妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
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2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
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3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
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6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
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2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
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3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
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4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
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5. Mount Putuo.<br />
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6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
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Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
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===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
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===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
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One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
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In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
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===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
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4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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teahouse 茶馆<br />
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scholarly family书香世家<br />
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imperial examination 科举制度<br />
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underworld 阴曹地府<br />
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fox spirit 狐妖<br />
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salt merchant 盐商<br />
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forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
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3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
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4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
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6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
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2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
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3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
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4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
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5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
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3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
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7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
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8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
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Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
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In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
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Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
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笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
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笔杆 pen-holder<br />
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宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
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羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
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鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
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====C. Questions====<br />
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1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
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2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
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3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
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*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
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*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
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*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
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==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
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===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
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===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
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According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
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Yandi 炎帝<br />
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Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
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Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
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Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
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the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
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The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
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Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
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Nian 年<br />
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new year 新年<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
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She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
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The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
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3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
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Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
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[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
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[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
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[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
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1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
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Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
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2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
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Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
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Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
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It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
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The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
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As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
[[The Nine-Grade Official Selection System:.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
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Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
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2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
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2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
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4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
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The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
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Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
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*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
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*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
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*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
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*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
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*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
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*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
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*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
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*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
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*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
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*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
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|-<br />
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|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
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|-<br />
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|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
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|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
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|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
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|-<br />
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|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
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|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
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|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
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|}<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
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2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
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3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
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4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
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5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
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6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
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2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
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3.Merchants.<br />
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4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
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5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
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6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
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--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
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[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
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====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
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In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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2.Rice powder<br />
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In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
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“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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====II.Color make up====<br />
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If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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1.Blush<br />
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Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
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Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
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[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
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2.Lipsctick<br />
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Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
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[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
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3.Eyebrows<br />
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It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11472720201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T13:02:24Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
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The meteor hammer <br />
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The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
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Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
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Rope Dart<br />
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The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
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Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
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Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
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A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
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These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
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It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
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===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
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trident 叉<br />
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dagger halberd 戟 <br />
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spiked mace 殳<br />
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soft whip 软鞭<br />
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bar mace 锏<br />
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dagger axe 戈<br />
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rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
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Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
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2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
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Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
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3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
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Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
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4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
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Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
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chariot n. 战车<br />
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mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
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Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
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Pit 1 一号坑<br />
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Pit 2 二号坑<br />
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Pit 3 三号坑<br />
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kiln n. 窑<br />
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Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
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World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
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2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
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3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
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4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
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5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
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6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
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2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
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3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
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4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
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5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
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6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
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2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
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3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
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4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
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Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''A.Categories'''<br />
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Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
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Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
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2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
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9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
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10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
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11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
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12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
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14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
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==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.<br />
<br />
3. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
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4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
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5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
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<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
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In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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2.Rice powder<br />
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In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
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“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
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If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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1.Blush<br />
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Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
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Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
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[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
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2.Lipsctick<br />
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Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
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[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
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3.Eyebrows<br />
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It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
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Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
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*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
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3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
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However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
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The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
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4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
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*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
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*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
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2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
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3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
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4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
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5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
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6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.Rice powder.<br />
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2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
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3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
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5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11470720201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T12:52:39Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
<br />
Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
<br />
Region 州<br />
<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
<br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, A Chinese History Reader, Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
<br />
2. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11469320201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T12:41:18Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
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桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
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2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
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5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
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6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
<br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
Region 州<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, A Chinese History Reader, Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
2. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
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“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
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Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
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It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
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For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
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3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
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After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
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In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
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However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
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The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
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4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
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Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
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Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
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====References====<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
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====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
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*胭脂 - rouge<br />
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*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
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*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
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====Questions====<br />
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1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
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2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
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3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
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4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
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5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
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6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
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====Answers====<br />
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1.Rice powder.<br />
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2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
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3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
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4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
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5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
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6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11468920201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T12:38:44Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
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Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
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The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
===Confucianism===<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). <br />
<br />
However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
===Taoism or Daoism===<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55). <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
===Legalism===<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
===Mohism===<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.<br />
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.<br />
<br />
1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.<br />
<br />
2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
<br />
2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
<br />
It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
<br />
3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
<br />
The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
<br />
4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
<br />
As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
<br />
5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸 <br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱<br />
<br />
Guan Yu 关羽<br />
<br />
Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
<br />
Liu Bei 刘备<br />
<br />
Cao Cao 曹操<br />
<br />
Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
<br />
Yan Song 严嵩<br />
<br />
Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
<br />
Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
<br />
Li Kui 李逵<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
<br />
Dian Wei 典韦<br />
<br />
Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
<br />
Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
<br />
Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
<br />
Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
<br />
Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
<br />
Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
<br />
Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
<br />
5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==<br />
<br />
===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===<br />
<br />
In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. <br />
<br />
The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.<br />
<br />
The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:<br />
1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers. <br />
2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn’t have the power of appointment.<br />
3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)<br />
4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.<br />
5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.<br />
6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.<br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制<br />
Recommendatory System 察举制<br />
Rectifier 中正官<br />
Senior Rectifier 大中正官<br />
Junior Rectifier 小中正官<br />
Region 州<br />
Commandery 郡<br />
superior-superior 上上<br />
superior-intermediary 上中<br />
superior-inferior 上下<br />
intermediary-superior 中上 <br />
intermediary-intermediary 中中<br />
intermediary-inferior 中下<br />
inferior-superior 下上<br />
inferior-intermediary 下中<br />
and inferior-inferior 下下<br />
Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书<br />
Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
2. What does a Rectifier do?<br />
3. What are the nine ranks?<br />
4. What’s the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.<br />
2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.<br />
3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.<br />
4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
1. Sun Xiaoyu, A Chinese History Reader, Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.<br />
2. 邓中平. 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示[D].西南政法大学,2010.<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
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Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
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This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Fret lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
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Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
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The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
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The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
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The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
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"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Vocabulary List===<br />
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lattice 格心<br />
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diamond lattice 菱花<br />
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the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
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the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
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a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
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swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
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fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
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the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
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the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
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2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
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3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
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2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
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3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
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*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
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*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
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*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
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* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
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==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
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===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
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As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
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The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
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Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
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Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
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Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
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Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
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Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
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Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
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Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
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Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
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Zhou Shi 周式<br />
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Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
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Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
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Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
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2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
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3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
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4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
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2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
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3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
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4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
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5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
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==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
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Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
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The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
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Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
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*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
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*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
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*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
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*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
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*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11420220201215 cultexam 42020-12-18T04:16:53Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮 英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"<br />
<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were integrated into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China." --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Li Chun creatively adopted the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been destroyed. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to the records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of the last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge also follows its style. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technique in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of the 19th century. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed within six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and torrential, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion.As it was built on the Luoyang River, it also named Luoyang Bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
There are many innovations in the construction technique of the Luoyang bridge, including the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
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泄洪 flood discharging<br />
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桥墩 pier<br />
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抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
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华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
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启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
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3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
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4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The painting Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25) --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty." This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festival in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
(英文和中文直接需要间隔，清明上河园不需要斜体，其他应该也不用斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(标点符号之间需要空格）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.<br />
<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.<br />
<br />
Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because every wax would melt in high temperature.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?<br />
<br />
When did batik appear and become popular?--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲 英语笔译 202070080623==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) <br />
<br />
In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. <br />
<br />
Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Differences between them are as follows: <br />
<br />
1. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. <br />
<br />
2. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) <br />
<br />
3. Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
<br />
1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
2. Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.(Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). <br />
<br />
The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)<br />
<br />
In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decreased in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)<br />
<br />
In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
<br />
The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
<br />
[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in "Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio".<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of " Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio " has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include "Lotus Fragrant", "Xiao Xie", "Lian Cheng", "Huan Niang", "Crow Head" and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. "Ye Sheng", "Si Wen Lang", "Yu Qu E" and "Wang Zian" are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as "Xi Fangping", "Promoting Weaving", "Dream Wolf", and "Mei Girl".<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. "Lotus Fragrant", "Xiao Xie", "Lian Cheng", "Huan Niang", "Crow Head".<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
====A. Confucianism====<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions. Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism. However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development, and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
====B. Taoism or Daoism====<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then. <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
<br />
====C. Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly. Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. <br />
<br />
Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
<br />
====D. Mohism====<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought. A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group. The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism. However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:44, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.Who are the representive figures of Confucianism?<br />
<br />
2.What is “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”)?<br />
<br />
3.What is the masterpiece of Daoism?<br />
<br />
4.When did Daoism emerge?<br />
<br />
5.What symbolize the form of Daoism?<br />
<br />
6.What is the core of Legalism?<br />
<br />
7.Why do we promote the rule of law at present?<br />
<br />
8.What are the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC?<br />
<br />
9.What does Mohism promote?<br />
<br />
10.What did Emperor Shi Huangdi promote?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi.<br />
<br />
2. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, the Emperor Shi Huangdi buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Te Ching (《道德经》).<br />
<br />
4. In the Pre-Qin Dynasty.<br />
<br />
5. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism.<br />
<br />
6. The rule of law.<br />
<br />
7. It can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large.<br />
<br />
8. Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism and Mohism.<br />
<br />
9. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
10. Legalism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
2.王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
3.刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
4.吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
5.任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
6.宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
7.王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
8.初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
9.和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
10.周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
11.程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
12.马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
13.魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:21, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
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In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
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In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
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The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
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A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
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In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
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Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili<br />
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====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
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笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
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笔杆 pen-holder<br />
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宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
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羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
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鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
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====C. Questions====<br />
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1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
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2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
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3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
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4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
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2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
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3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
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4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
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*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
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*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
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*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
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==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
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===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
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===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
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===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
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===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
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According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
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Yandi 炎帝<br />
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Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
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Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
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Nüwa 女娃<br />
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Eastern Sea 东海<br />
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the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
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Zhang River 漳水<br />
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The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
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Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
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Nian 年<br />
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new year 新年<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
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She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
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2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
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The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
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3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
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Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
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[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
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[3]百度百科<br />
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[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
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[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
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[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
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1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics<br />
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Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)<br />
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2.The origin and development of face changing <br />
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Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)<br />
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Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)<br />
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It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)<br />
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3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu<br />
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The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people’s perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)<br />
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4.Crafting materials for facial makeup<br />
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As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)<br />
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5.Three main types of Lianpu<br />
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There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
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Face changing n.变脸 <br />
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Lian pu 脸谱<br />
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Guan Yu 关羽<br />
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Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》<br />
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Liu Bei 刘备<br />
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Cao Cao 曹操<br />
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Qin Hui 秦桧<br />
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Yan Song 严嵩<br />
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Sima Yi 司马懿<br />
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Bao Zhenhg 包拯<br />
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Li Kui 李逵<br />
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Zhang Fei 张飞<br />
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Dian Wei 典韦<br />
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Pang Juan 庞涓<br />
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Xu Shiying 徐世英<br />
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Dou Erdun 窦尔敦<br />
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Cheng Yaojin 程咬金<br />
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Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜<br />
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Sun Wukong, 孙悟空<br />
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Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王 <br />
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Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
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Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
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Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
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Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
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Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
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===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
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2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
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3.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
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4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?<br />
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5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.<br />
<br />
The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.<br />
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5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
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<br />
===References===<br />
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<br />
罗玥Luo Yue. 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera [J]. 戏剧之家Home Drama, 2019, 13:29-30. <br />
<br />
王华清Wang Huaqing. 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera[J]. 设计Design，2017.<br />
<br />
萧源锦Xiao Yuanjin. 神奇莫测的川剧变脸Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera[J]. 文史杂志Journal of Literature and History , 2013, 2: 54-55.<br />
<br />
百度百科Baidu Baike<br />
<br />
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml<br />
<br />
https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:55, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
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[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
<br />
There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
<br />
Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
<br />
Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
<br />
Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
<br />
xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
<br />
Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
<br />
Donglin School 东林党<br />
<br />
Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
<br />
Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
<br />
Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
<br />
Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
<br />
Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
<br />
Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
<br />
Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
<br />
the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
<br />
the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
<br />
5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
<br />
6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
<br />
6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, student no. 202070080633==<br />
<br />
===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
<br />
[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
<br />
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
<br />
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
<br />
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
<br />
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
<br />
Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
<br />
*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
<br />
*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
<br />
*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*jiaozi 交子<br />
<br />
*Fei-qian 飞钱<br />
<br />
*contractual bonds 契券<br />
<br />
*the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom 楚的马殷时期<br />
<br />
*Gui Fang 柜坊<br />
<br />
*Li Shun 李顺<br />
<br />
*jiaozi bank 交子铺<br />
<br />
*broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry) 楮树<br />
<br />
*private jiaozi 私交子<br />
<br />
*Xue Tian 薛田<br />
<br />
*Yizhou 益州<br />
<br />
*the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty 宋仁宗元年<br />
<br />
*Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department 益州交子务<br />
<br />
*official jiaozi 官交子<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
<br />
6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
<br />
2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
<br />
4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
<br />
5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
<br />
6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
<br />
[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
<br />
In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
<br />
From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
<br />
====I.Base make up====<br />
<br />
1.Lead powder<br />
<br />
In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
2.Rice powder<br />
<br />
In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_4&diff=11300820201215 cultexam 42020-12-16T10:00:12Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===<br />
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges all over the land of china were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. Many of the architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges in the world, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese working people. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city (alose called Xiangzi Bridge), Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"(Wei Wei, 2016).<br />
<br />
===Zhaozhou Bridge===<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. Built in the Sui Dynasty, it was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge.（Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for more than 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river under the bridge. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style, but the number of small arches on the main arch is increased to five on one side. In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. In addition, there are flowers and animal head patterns carved on the balustrade of the bridge. The image is very exquisite and can be called the Sui and Tang Dynasties sculpture art masterpiece. The success of Zhaozhou Bridge has a wide and far-reaching influence on traffic, architecture and art.（Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
===Luoyang Bridge===<br />
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of more than 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. Because it is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)<br />
<br />
===Lugou Bridge===<br />
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. A large stone lion is carved on the top of the pillar, and some small stone lions are carved on the head, under the feet or on the back of the breast. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west end are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like meeting and seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, Lugou bridge has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the surrounding city, the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）<br />
<br />
===Guangji Bridge===<br />
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There is also a square white marble pavilion on both sides of the bridge, and each column has a dragon carving. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong of Qing Dynasty is the most famous. Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, in order to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk in Chaozhou. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. Where their magic power failed, there were “Wuyang mountain” (Fuyang town) and “pig mountain” (Huxi town).(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair in the seventh year of Xuande of the Ming Dynasty. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. Due to the large amount of stone needed to build the bridge, it was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, took the lead in smashing down two strange stones, and wrote a poem about removing strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in the Daoxian period of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he threw his official hat and uniform into the water, indicating that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway of “people can't forget him” in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.<br />
<br />
Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.<br />
<br />
Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.<br />
<br />
Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
石拱桥 stone arch bridge<br />
<br />
望柱 baluster<br />
<br />
桥基 settlement<br />
<br />
泄洪 flood discharging<br />
<br />
桥墩 pier<br />
<br />
抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block<br />
<br />
华表Chinese totem pillar <br />
<br />
栏杆 balustrade<br />
<br />
燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin<br />
<br />
启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?<br />
<br />
2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?<br />
<br />
3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?<br />
<br />
4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.<br />
<br />
2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.<br />
<br />
3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.<br />
<br />
4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
====Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”<br />
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）<br />
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!<br />
<br />
====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.<br />
<br />
====B.The Development of Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.<br />
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.<br />
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.<br />
<br />
====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====<br />
<br />
When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.<br />
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）<br />
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.<br />
<br />
====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====<br />
<br />
The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)<br />
<br />
====3.Indian Masala Chai====<br />
<br />
Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食）<br />
<br />
====C.Milk Tea and Health====<br />
<br />
====1.Advantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
====2.Disadvantages====<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15<br />
<br />
2.《世界著名奶茶大全》 厨影美食 <br />
<br />
3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》<br />
<br />
4.茶颜悦色密码 （2020）国企管理,(20)68.<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Milk tea 奶茶<br />
<br />
Spice 香辛料<br />
<br />
Rudiment 雏形<br />
<br />
Sexytea 茶颜悦色<br />
<br />
Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁<br />
<br />
Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶<br />
<br />
Cholesterol 胆固醇<br />
<br />
Hyperglycemia 高血糖<br />
<br />
Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原<br />
<br />
Maple sugar 枫糖<br />
<br />
Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶<br />
<br />
Internet celebrity city网红城市<br />
<br />
Pecans 碧根果<br />
<br />
Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶<br />
<br />
Hyperlipidemia 高血脂<br />
<br />
Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病<br />
<br />
Gastrointestinal 肠胃的<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What is the origin of milk tea?<br />
<br />
Mongolia Milk Tea.<br />
<br />
2.Who promoted milk tea?<br />
<br />
British colonists.<br />
<br />
3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?<br />
<br />
Britain.<br />
<br />
4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?<br />
<br />
Sexytea.<br />
<br />
5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?<br />
<br />
No.<br />
<br />
6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.<br />
<br />
7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?<br />
<br />
Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.<br />
<br />
==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良-英语笔译-202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, and covering an area of more than 600 acres, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the Northern Song Dynasty. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)<br />
<br />
The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China. It reflects the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng as the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it only reflects a part of Kaifeng at that time, People can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'', the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)<br />
<br />
The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and it is also a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050, and it was reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)<br />
<br />
The Fuyun Pavillion is 31.99 meters high and it is the tallest building in the garden. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three flowers hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)<br />
<br />
Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)<br />
<br />
During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can have an outing in spring, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''“Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty”.'' This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand festivl in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented.The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, which attracted thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)<br />
<br />
There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'', ''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo'' and so on. Among these formances, ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty'' is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance is lasted for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today’s Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which give people a visual impact and have a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' 清明上河园<br />
<br />
''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''《清明上河图》<br />
<br />
Rainbow Bridge虹桥<br />
<br />
Fuyun Pavillion浮云阁<br />
<br />
Shangshan Gate 上善门<br />
<br />
chrysanthemum菊花<br />
<br />
''Baogong Salute to Guests''包公迎宾<br />
<br />
''Spitting Fire Show''气功喷火<br />
<br />
''Cockfight''斗鸡<br />
<br />
''Women’s Polo''女子马球<br />
<br />
''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''《大宋·东京梦华》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the location of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden''?<br />
<br />
2.What’s the role of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' in China?<br />
<br />
3.When was ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' opened to the public?<br />
<br />
4.Who is the painter of ''Piverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?<br />
<br />
5.Which dynasty of the painting ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' present?<br />
<br />
6.What does the name of ''Fuyun Pavilion'' mean?<br />
<br />
7.What’s the characteristics of the performance of ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
8.Can you please list some kinds of performance of ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' besides ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.It is located on the west bank of ''Dragon Pavilion'' in Kaifeng, Henan Province.<br />
<br />
2.In 2009, ''Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden'' was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by ''China World Records Association''. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s ''intangible cultural heritage exhibition base''. <br />
<br />
3.It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.<br />
<br />
4.Zhang Zeduan.<br />
<br />
5.Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
6.The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.<br />
<br />
7.It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. <br />
<br />
8.''Baogong Salute to Guests'', ''Spitting Fire Show'', ''Cockfight'', ''Women’s Polo''.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Kang 陈康.(2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].集邮博览Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.<br />
<br />
Gao Jing高静.(2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty].光彩Brilliance(04)16-19.<br />
<br />
Li Mei李梅.(2007).清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development].合作经济与科技Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.<br />
<br />
Pang Runxin庞润昕.(2019).《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival].景德镇陶瓷大学Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.<br />
<br />
Wei Tuo韦陀.(2006).张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan].紫禁城Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Lu张璐.(2013).清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of “Qingming River” Song Dynasty Theme Park].赤峰学院学报Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
===Batik(Lanran)===<br />
Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia. <br />
<br />
Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.<br />
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the patterns on the quilt is still unknown.("was" should be added before "excavated","patterns" or "is" needs a minor change.)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. <br />
<br />
Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Types===<br />
<br />
Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region.（百度百科—蜡染）<br />
<br />
===Technical Process===<br />
<br />
Preparation <br />
<br />
Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate.<br />
<br />
Applying wax<br />
<br />
Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife. <br />
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth.<br />
<br />
Dip-dyeing<br />
<br />
Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and dry in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique.(-ing should be added to dry in the second sentence)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Dewaxing<br />
<br />
After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Materials ===<br />
<br />
The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turn out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.('s' should be added to "turn", "that" after "because" in the last sentence should be deleted.)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.<br />
<br />
In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （廖利.《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Patterns===<br />
<br />
From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns. <br />
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.<br />
<br />
Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains. <br />
<br />
Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns. <br />
<br />
The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value. （《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网）<br />
<br />
Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(廖利《蜡染艺术》2012）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
batik 蜡染<br />
<br />
laxie 蜡缬<br />
<br />
huixie 灰缬<br />
<br />
jiaoxie 绞缬<br />
<br />
jiaxie 夹缬<br />
<br />
Eryi Records 《二仪实录》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》<br />
<br />
The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》<br />
<br />
single-color dyeing 单色染<br />
<br />
multi-color dyeing 复色染<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院<br />
<br />
Polygonum 蓼蓝<br />
<br />
Polygonaceae蓼科植物<br />
<br />
Isatis tinctoria 松蓝<br />
<br />
Cruciferae 十字花科<br />
<br />
anil 木蓝属植物<br />
<br />
leguminous豆科<br />
<br />
safflower红花 <br />
<br />
madder茜草<br />
<br />
yellow gardenia黄色栀子<br />
<br />
turmeric姜黄<br />
<br />
Rhamnus utility冻绿<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?<br />
<br />
Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.<br />
<br />
2. When did batik appear and became popular?("changed" should be changed into "become")--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?<br />
<br />
Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.<br />
<br />
4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?<br />
<br />
China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.<br />
<br />
5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?<br />
<br />
Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.<br />
<br />
6. How does “ice patterns” appear?<br />
<br />
When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".<br />
<br />
7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?<br />
<br />
Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
百度百科—蜡染<br />
<br />
《蜡染艺术》.www.worlduc.com.廖利<br />
<br />
《贵州蜡染图案的常用题材》老苗人蜡染民族工艺品网<br />
<br />
==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==<br />
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===<br />
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).<br />
<br />
Short weapons <br />
<br />
The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords. <br />
<br />
Long Weapons <br />
<br />
The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.<br />
<br />
Historical Origins<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.<br />
After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.<br />
During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.<br />
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.<br />
<br />
The meteor hammer <br />
<br />
The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.<br />
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.<br />
<br />
<br />
Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.<br />
<br />
Rope Dart<br />
<br />
The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.<br />
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.<br />
The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).<br />
<br />
Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.<br />
<br />
<br />
A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.<br />
<br />
These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.<br />
<br />
It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.<br />
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!<br />
<br />
===B.Terms and Expressions===<br />
greataxe 钺<br />
<br />
trident 叉<br />
<br />
dagger halberd 戟 <br />
<br />
spiked mace 殳<br />
<br />
soft whip 软鞭<br />
<br />
bar mace 锏<br />
<br />
dagger axe 戈<br />
<br />
rope dart 绳镖<br />
===C.Questions===<br />
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?<br />
<br />
Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.<br />
<br />
2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?<br />
<br />
Answer: The Stone Age weapons.<br />
<br />
3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?<br />
<br />
Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.<br />
<br />
4. How to use a meteor hammer?<br />
<br />
Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.百度百科<br />
<br />
2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.<br />
<br />
3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.<br />
<br />
4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
===Terracotta Army===<br />
<br />
The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)<br />
<br />
For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China. The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)<br />
<br />
Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)<br />
<br />
The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑 <br />
<br />
chariot n. 战车<br />
<br />
mausoleum n. 陵墓 <br />
<br />
Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇<br />
<br />
Pit 1 一号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 2 二号坑<br />
<br />
Pit 3 三号坑<br />
<br />
kiln n. 窑<br />
<br />
Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹<br />
<br />
World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?<br />
<br />
2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?<br />
<br />
3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?<br />
<br />
4. How the terracotta warriors were made?<br />
<br />
5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?<br />
<br />
6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.<br />
<br />
2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.<br />
<br />
3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future. <br />
<br />
4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.<br />
<br />
5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors. <br />
<br />
2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.<br />
<br />
3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.<br />
<br />
4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''Penjing'''<br />
<br />
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature. <br />
<br />
'''A.Categories'''<br />
<br />
Penjing generally fall into one of three categories: <br />
1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）<br />
<br />
'''B.History'''<br />
<br />
China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.<br />
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）<br />
<br />
'''C.Techniques and Care'''<br />
<br />
Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.<br />
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.<br />
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. <br />
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.<br />
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.<br />
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.<br />
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.<br />
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.<br />
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.<br />
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）<br />
<br />
'''D. In Other Culture'''<br />
<br />
Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*miniature小型的，缩小的<br />
*trimming 修剪<br />
*pruning 剪枝<br />
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代<br />
*pomegranate 石榴<br />
*literali 文人<br />
*clamping 折枝成型<br />
<br />
===Question===<br />
*Have you ever raise any plants?<br />
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?<br />
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?<br />
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?<br />
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.<br />
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.<br />
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.<br />
*The Han Dynasty<br />
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类<br />
<br />
[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管<br />
<br />
[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋<br />
<br />
[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===<br />
<br />
===A. Douyin and Tik Tok === <br />
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app owned by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is used for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents usually include challenges and funny videos. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2) In the first quarter of 2018, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was the most downloaded iPhone app in the world. Although they were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on which app store you have access to, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas app stores.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and content is not shared between the platforms. But both versions of TikTok offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option to add special effects and filters. <br />
<br />
The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. The most popular types of content on Douyin are dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts. “The platform is based around ultra-short, user-posted videos with music that are 15 seconds in duration but can be strung together to make 60-second ‘stories’.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing along to a song of their choice from Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app. Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second bottomless stream of videos, as does how you scroll through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people will spend most of the time on the For You Page. Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that identifies users’ interests and preferences through their viewing behaviors. This is where the algorithm puts content in front of users, anticipating what they will enjoy based on content they have already engaged with. It's also where it shows content it thinks could go viral. The idea is that if the content is good it will travel, regardless of how many followers the creator has. (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)<br />
<br />
===B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram === <br />
As we have mentioned before, Tik Tok is somehow similar to Instagram. But while their app fundamentals are alike, they have many features that distinguish them from each other. Time limit: TikTok currently does not have a long-form video feature. Instagram’s long-form video feature, IGTV allows video length of up to one hour. Users: Their users age range differs from each other, most TikTok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most TikTok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (Carissa Brones, 2019: 1-2) Community: compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. The app allows users to easily connect, create friendships, and collab with others. Each week something new trends, which enables virality and increases the potential for popularity. Creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok.<br />
<br />
===C. Popularity and Effects === <br />
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Whereas this new app is enjoying its hockey stick trajectory, Instagram growth is slowly dropping in 2019. Several reasons why Douyin is so popular include:<br />
Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)<br />
<br />
Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. <br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy(Chinese), Jimmy Fallon(American), have helped drive TikTok's popularity. <br />
<br />
There is no doubt that TikTok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a TikTok or doing one of the TikTok dances.<br />
<br />
Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of TikTok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, TikTok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic.<br />
<br />
Publicity: With TikTok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.<br />
<br />
Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on TikTok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)<br />
<br />
Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from TikTok. As an engaging platform, TikTok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Linens N Love or intern for companies.<br />
<br />
Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. Some of the following negative effects of TikTok are:<br />
<br />
Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making it hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later having lost an entire day.<br />
<br />
Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people use the app to criticize other people’s videos, while some users create videos deriding others. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved which can lead to life-threatening situations and decisions.<br />
<br />
Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)<br />
<br />
In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues.<br />
<br />
[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音<br />
<br />
ByteDance 字节跳动<br />
<br />
Short video platforms 短视频平台<br />
<br />
Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法<br />
<br />
Celebrity endorsements 名人代言<br />
<br />
===Questions and Answers===<br />
Q1. What is Tik Tok<br />
<br />
Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q3. Why tik tok is so popular around the world? <br />
<br />
Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?<br />
<br />
Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok? <br />
<br />
A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic. <br />
<br />
A2: They are two different versions which can be downloaded in different regions -- douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.<br />
<br />
A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing<br />
<br />
A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. People can learn new things.<br />
<br />
A5: Many worried that Tik tok is addictive, bad for mental health and unsafe.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018<br />
<br />
* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.<br />
<br />
* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020<br />
<br />
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019<br />
<br />
* Tian Fengchang , Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based onTik Tok Short Video][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.<br />
<br />
* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].<br />
<br />
* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China<br />
<br />
* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.<br />
<br />
* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.<br />
<br />
* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳== <br />
<br />
===Four Buddhist Shrines=== <br />
<br />
Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity, and ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated, achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)<br />
<br />
===Mount Wutai=== <br />
<br />
Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）<br />
<br />
===Mount Putuo=== <br />
<br />
Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）<br />
<br />
===Mount Emei=== <br />
<br />
Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is Listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Jast the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(百度百科）<br />
<br />
===Mount Jiuhua=== <br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. Initially named Mount Jiuzi, later it was renamed into Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Libai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions=== <br />
<br />
Buddhist adj.佛教的<br />
<br />
Buddhism n.佛教<br />
<br />
shrine n.圣地<br />
<br />
pullulate v.大量产生<br />
<br />
Gold Wutai 金五台<br />
<br />
Silver Putuo 银普陀<br />
<br />
Copper Emei 铜峨眉<br />
<br />
Iron Jiuhua 铁九华<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨<br />
<br />
Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨<br />
<br />
Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨<br />
<br />
reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身<br />
<br />
ashram n. 修行的住所<br />
<br />
Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼<br />
<br />
Sarnath n. 鹿野苑<br />
<br />
Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶<br />
<br />
Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗<br />
<br />
Wanghai Peak 望海峰 <br />
<br />
Yedou Peak 叶斗峰<br />
<br />
Guayue Peak 挂月峰<br />
<br />
Splendid Peak 锦绣峰<br />
<br />
Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰<br />
<br />
Xiantong Temple 显通寺<br />
<br />
Nanchan Temple 南禅寺<br />
<br />
Foguang Temple 佛光寺<br />
<br />
The Great White Tower 大白塔<br />
<br />
Puji Temple 普济寺<br />
<br />
Fayu Temple 法雨寺<br />
<br />
Huiji Temple 惠济寺<br />
<br />
The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林<br />
<br />
Wannian Temple 万年寺<br />
<br />
Baoguo Temple 报国寺 <br />
<br />
Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺<br />
<br />
Golden Summit 金顶<br />
<br />
Huacheng Temple 化城寺<br />
<br />
Tiantai Temple 天台寺<br />
<br />
Longevity Palace 百岁宫<br />
<br />
Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺<br />
<br />
nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai<br />
<br />
妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?<br />
<br />
2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?<br />
<br />
3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?<br />
<br />
4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?<br />
<br />
5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?<br />
<br />
6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.<br />
<br />
2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.<br />
<br />
3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.<br />
<br />
4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.<br />
<br />
5. Mount Putuo.<br />
<br />
6. Mount Jiuhua.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.<br />
<br />
2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.<br />
<br />
4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html<br />
<br />
5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:03, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
===Compass===<br />
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as the ancient China's advanced science and technology, has made great contribution to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity and use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions. The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94). The earliest south-pointing device probably appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism was weak acquired from the magnetic field, resulting in the decreased in practical values. In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water. And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (Lu and Huang 1995,1-6)<br />
<br />
Compass, as an instrument to guide the direction, had played an important role in people's daily life and navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It was recorded that Qin emperor used the diving board and compass in royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass made people believe that the square plate symbolized earth and the circular disc symbolized heaven. And around the circular disc, there inscribed the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 lunar mansions (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a kind of superstition, the compass was endowed with people's wishful thinking. Nowadays many people still use the concepts of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremony. (China Week 2003,35)<br />
<br />
Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass had played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)<br />
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The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)<br />
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[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*"FOUR Great Inventions"[四大发明]. China's Foreign Trade[中国外贸].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012):94.<br />
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China"[指南针——中国四大发明之一]. China Week[中华周刊].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.[中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003):35.<br />
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇 中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》[Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 1995:1-16.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明<br />
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子<br />
*lodestone 天然磁石<br />
*south-governor 司南<br />
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》<br />
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮 <br />
*Ding Du 丁度<br />
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼<br />
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》<br />
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘<br />
*dry compass 旱罗盘<br />
*Eight Trigrams 八卦<br />
*gimbal 常平架<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature? <br />
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear? <br />
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?<br />
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?<br />
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass? <br />
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass? <br />
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.<br />
*In the Warring States Period.<br />
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.<br />
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.<br />
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.<br />
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.<br />
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.<br />
<br />
== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==<br />
<br />
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===<br />
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in "Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio".<br />
<br />
===2. Contents and Themes===<br />
The whole book of " Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio " has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types: <br />
<br />
One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include "Lotus Fragrant", "Xiao Xie", "Lian Cheng", "Huan Niang", "Crow Head" and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. "Ye Sheng", "Si Wen Lang", "Yu Qu E" and "Wang Zian" are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as "Xi Fangping", "Promoting Weaving", "Dream Wolf", and "Mei Girl".<br />
<br />
In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.<br />
<br />
===3. A Typical Story===<br />
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.<br />
<br />
===4. Features of the Book===<br />
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
teahouse 茶馆<br />
<br />
scholarly family书香世家<br />
<br />
imperial examination 科举制度<br />
<br />
underworld 阴曹地府<br />
<br />
fox spirit 狐妖<br />
<br />
salt merchant 盐商<br />
<br />
forgetting to be alien 忘为异类<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?<br />
<br />
2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?<br />
<br />
4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.<br />
<br />
5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?<br />
<br />
6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Nearly 500.<br />
<br />
2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.<br />
<br />
3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.<br />
<br />
4. "Lotus Fragrant", "Xiao Xie", "Lian Cheng", "Huan Niang", "Crow Head".<br />
<br />
5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.<br />
<br />
6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.<br />
<br />
Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".<br />
<br />
The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.<br />
<br />
Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
====A. Confucianism====<br />
<br />
In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and try to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions. Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.<br />
<br />
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatened the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism. However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”). However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaw in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development, and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.<br />
<br />
In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation can survive whatever disaster it encountered. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.<br />
<br />
====B. Taoism or Daoism====<br />
<br />
Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively. <br />
<br />
First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then. <br />
<br />
However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor chose Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.<br />
<br />
<br />
====C. Legalism====<br />
<br />
Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law as its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly. Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. <br />
<br />
Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishment according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.<br />
<br />
<br />
====D. Mohism====<br />
<br />
Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought. A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group. The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the later contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism. However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:44, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
1.Who are the representive figures of Confucianism?<br />
<br />
2.What is “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”)?<br />
<br />
3.What is the masterpiece of Daoism?<br />
<br />
4.When did Daoism emerge?<br />
<br />
5.What symbolize the form of Daoism?<br />
<br />
6.What is the core of Legalism?<br />
<br />
7.Why do we promote the rule of law at present?<br />
<br />
8.What are the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC?<br />
<br />
9.What does Mohism promote?<br />
<br />
10.What did Emperor Shi Huangdi promote?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi.<br />
<br />
2. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, the Emperor Shi Huangdi buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect.<br />
<br />
3. Tao Te Ching (《道德经》).<br />
<br />
4. In the Pre-Qin Dynasty.<br />
<br />
5. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism.<br />
<br />
6. The rule of law.<br />
<br />
7. It can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large.<br />
<br />
8. Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism and Mohism.<br />
<br />
9. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.<br />
<br />
10. Legalism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).<br />
<br />
2.王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.<br />
<br />
3.刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.<br />
<br />
4.吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.<br />
<br />
5.任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.<br />
<br />
6.宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.<br />
<br />
7.王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.<br />
<br />
8.初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.<br />
<br />
9.和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.<br />
<br />
10.周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.<br />
<br />
11.程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.<br />
<br />
12.马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.<br />
<br />
13.魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:21, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
====A. Writing Brush====<br />
<br />
Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)<br />
<br />
In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)<br />
<br />
In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.<br />
<br />
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35) <br />
<br />
The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) <br />
<br />
By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. <br />
<br />
A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)<br />
<br />
In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)<br />
<br />
Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)<br />
<br />
Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. <br />
<br />
As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation.<br />
<br />
====B. Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
笔锋 the tip of a wring brush<br />
<br />
笔杆 pen-holder<br />
<br />
宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush<br />
<br />
羊毫笔 goat-hair brush<br />
<br />
鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush<br />
<br />
====C. Questions====<br />
<br />
1. What are the four treasures of the study?<br />
<br />
2. How long is the history of writing brush?<br />
<br />
3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?<br />
<br />
4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.<br />
<br />
2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.<br />
<br />
3. In the Warring States periods.<br />
<br />
4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.<br />
<br />
*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.<br />
<br />
*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.<br />
<br />
*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===<br />
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.<br />
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)<br />
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.<br />
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.<br />
<br />
===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.<br />
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]<br />
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.<br />
<br />
===The Legendary of Nian===<br />
<br />
According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.<br />
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海<br />
<br />
Yandi 炎帝<br />
<br />
Shanhaijing 山海经<br />
<br />
Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山<br />
<br />
Nüwa 女娃<br />
<br />
Eastern Sea 东海<br />
<br />
the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟<br />
<br />
Zhang River 漳水<br />
<br />
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水<br />
<br />
Emperor Yao 尧帝<br />
<br />
Nian 年<br />
<br />
new year 新年<br />
<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1.Who is Nüwa? <br />
<br />
She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.<br />
<br />
2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?<br />
<br />
The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.<br />
<br />
3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?<br />
<br />
Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.<br />
<br />
[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.<br />
<br />
[3]百度百科<br />
<br />
[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian. <br />
<br />
[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review. <br />
<br />
[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168. <br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being.<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. <br />
<br />
One of the most fascinating, artistic charms of Sichuan Opera is face-changing, which is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. Face changing is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art.<br />
<br />
The performer prepares many special masks in advance made of gauze and elastic materials, such as sheep embryo membranes and rubber. After the masks are painted with different designs and assembled with a special transparent thread, they are pasted onto the performer’s face. The special masks for “changing faces” must be made to fit the performer’s face to ensure that they are pasted as close as possible to the skin. Previously, the masks were discarded after a performance, but today they can be recycled with some minor repairs.<br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. At the beginning opera masters changed the color of their face during performances by blowing into a bowl of red, black or gold powder. The powder would adhere to their oiled skin quickly. In another method, actors would smear their faces with colored paste concealed in the palms of their hands.<br />
<br />
Face changing is a magical art. Actors change more than 10 masks in less than 20 seconds! By raising the hand, swinging a sleeve or tossing the head, an actor uses different masks to show different emotions, expressing invisible and intangible feelings through visible and tangible masks. The changing of types of lian pu (Chinese opera facial make-up) and colors reflect a character’s mood: for instance, red represents anger and black represents extreme fury. From green to blue, red, yellow, brown, black, dark and gold, these masks show fear, tension, relaxation, slyness, desperation, outrage, and so on.<br />
<br />
Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black.<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops. <br />
<br />
Today hi-tech is used to enhance this traditional art. Lasers and twinkling lights add a touch of mystery. And modern faces like Zorro are invited to the stage.<br />
<br />
===Vovabulary list===<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧<br />
<br />
Face changing n.变脸<br />
<br />
gauze 纱布 <br />
<br />
sheep embryo membranes 羊胚胎膜<br />
<br />
Lian pu 脸谱 <br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Wiping Mask 抹脸<br />
<br />
Blowing Mask 吹脸<br />
<br />
Pulling Mask 扯脸<br />
<br />
Peng Denghuai 彭登怀<br />
<br />
Andy Lau 刘德华 <br />
<br />
Zorro 佐罗<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
<br />
2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?<br />
<br />
Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.<br />
<br />
3.What is expected of a Chuanju performer in appearance? <br />
<br />
Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. <br />
<br />
4.How long is the history of face changing?<br />
<br />
Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).<br />
<br />
5.What are the three types of face changes?<br />
<br />
There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Recommendatory System in Han Dynasty--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:55, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)<br />
<br />
From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)<br />
<br />
===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)<br />
<br />
===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]<br />
<br />
In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)<br />
<br />
===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]<br />
<br />
This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）<br />
<br />
===Swastika lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]<br />
<br />
Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)<br />
<br />
This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.<br />
<br />
===Fret lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]<br />
<br />
Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)<br />
<br />
===The cracked ice lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]<br />
<br />
The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)<br />
<br />
===The H-shaped Lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]<br />
<br />
The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)<br />
<br />
===The well-shaped lattice===<br />
<br />
[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]<br />
<br />
The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.<br />
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)<br />
<br />
===Vocabulary List===<br />
<br />
lattice 格心<br />
<br />
diamond lattice 菱花<br />
<br />
the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花<br />
<br />
the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花<br />
<br />
a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花<br />
<br />
swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花<br />
<br />
the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows? <br />
<br />
2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples? <br />
<br />
3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight. <br />
<br />
2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples. <br />
<br />
3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br />
<br />
*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.<br />
<br />
*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press<br />
<br />
*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts<br />
<br />
* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review. <br />
<br />
* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.<br />
<br />
==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 student no.202070080631==<br />
<br />
===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===<br />
<br />
As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)<br />
<br />
The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system.Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription, Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020)<br />
<br />
Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020)<br />
<br />
Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]<br />
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There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays.Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here. Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020)<br />
Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.<br />
<br />
Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.<br />
<br />
Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.<br />
<br />
Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).<br />
<br />
Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.<br />
<br />
Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.<br />
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Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411. <br />
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Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).<br />
<br />
Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间<br />
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Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗<br />
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xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗<br />
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Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派<br />
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Donglin School 东林党<br />
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Zhu Xi 朱熹<br />
<br />
Zhou Shi 周式<br />
<br />
Zhang Shi 张栻<br />
<br />
Qiandao Reign 乾道年间<br />
<br />
Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛<br />
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Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁<br />
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Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭<br />
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Yushu Library 御书楼<br />
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Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁<br />
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Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂<br />
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Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂<br />
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the Banxue Building 半学斋<br />
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the Hexi Platform 赫曦台<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?<br />
<br />
2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?<br />
<br />
3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?<br />
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5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?<br />
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6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).<br />
<br />
2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.<br />
<br />
3.The Lecture Hall.<br />
<br />
4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. <br />
<br />
5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning. <br />
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6.There was held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.<br />
<br />
==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, student no. 202070080633==<br />
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===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===<br />
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[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
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Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). <br />
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The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.<br />
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The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".<br />
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). <br />
<br />
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). <br />
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Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).<br />
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The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).<br />
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Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.<br />
<br />
*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.<br />
<br />
*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.<br />
<br />
*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.<br />
<br />
*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26. <br />
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*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.<br />
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*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.<br />
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*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.<br />
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*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*jiaozi 交子<br />
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*Fei-qian 飞钱<br />
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*contractual bonds 契券<br />
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*the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom 楚的马殷时期<br />
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*Gui Fang 柜坊<br />
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*Li Shun 李顺<br />
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*jiaozi bank 交子铺<br />
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*broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry) 楮树<br />
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*private jiaozi 私交子<br />
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*Xue Tian 薛田<br />
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*Yizhou 益州<br />
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*the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty 宋仁宗元年<br />
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*Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department 益州交子务<br />
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*official jiaozi 官交子<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?<br />
<br />
2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?<br />
<br />
3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?<br />
<br />
4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?<br />
<br />
5.What achievements did jiaozi make?<br />
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6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1.Jiaozi.<br />
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2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.<br />
<br />
3.Merchants.<br />
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4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).<br />
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5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.<br />
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6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.<br />
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--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003==<br />
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]<br />
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[[File: makeup.jpg]]<br />
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Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.<br />
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It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.<br />
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In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.<br />
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From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]<br />
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====I.Base make up====<br />
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1.Lead powder<br />
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In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
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2.Rice powder<br />
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In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.<br />
<br />
“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]<br />
<br />
====II.Color make up====<br />
<br />
If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
1.Blush<br />
<br />
Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).<br />
<br />
Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.<br />
<br />
[[File: blush.jpg]]<br />
<br />
2.Lipsctick<br />
<br />
Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.<br />
<br />
[[File: lipstick.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
3.Eyebrows<br />
<br />
It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.<br />
<br />
Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.<br />
<br />
In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.<br />
<br />
[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====III.Tang dynasty make up====<br />
<br />
[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]<br />
<br />
1.Early Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.<br />
<br />
In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.<br />
<br />
*White make up<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
*Red make up<br />
<br />
In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.<br />
<br />
As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.<br />
<br />
For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.<br />
<br />
3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty<br />
<br />
After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.<br />
<br />
In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.<br />
<br />
However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.<br />
<br />
The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.<br />
<br />
4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times<br />
<br />
Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.<br />
<br />
Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.<br />
<br />
*胭脂 - rouge<br />
<br />
*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick<br />
<br />
*黛 - black eyebrow dye<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?<br />
<br />
2.Why is lead powder dangerous?<br />
<br />
3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?<br />
<br />
4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?<br />
<br />
5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?<br />
<br />
6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1.Rice powder.<br />
<br />
2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.<br />
<br />
3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.<br />
<br />
4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.<br />
<br />
5.White make up and Red make up.<br />
<br />
6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11194120201214 trans2020-12-14T04:42:10Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
<br />
社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
<br />
Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
<br />
'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
<br />
Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
<br />
因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
<br />
因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
<br />
Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda.<br />
<br />
因此，他有一种特别独立的特质，这一特质使得他在1949年后与作家协会的关系有些紧张。他在1957年的正风运动中遭到攻击，且直到1962年才加入共产党。<br />
<br />
因此，1949年后，尤其是百花运动期间和百花运动之后，每一位作家在接触到写作时都会表现出不同程度的紧张。然而,他们都以散文为载体来表达自己,尽管有时这些文章似乎表面上是适度的或过度的宣传。<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
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The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
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社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
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由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
<br />
由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
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In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
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与左派美学的摩擦<br />
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在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
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Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
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'''杨朔'''<br />
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杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
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The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
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这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
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文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
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文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
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In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
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为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
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在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
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杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
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What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
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Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s.<br />
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刘白羽在国内向三文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。<br />
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<br />
'''刘白羽'''<br />
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刘白羽在国内向散文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
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20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回马革裹尸的战场。《灯火》，以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同发展阶段为背景，通过强有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.]显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响力颇大，但他仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在对战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
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...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
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"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式呈现，黎明时分，天安门广场的建筑工地上有长相帅气但是衣服褴褛的工人，作者还想起其他场景，当他就在“那里，那个位置！” 其中就一个很重要的一段记忆就是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有人民解放军回北京和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式的记忆。但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
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刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
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尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
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Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
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秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
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秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
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一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机窗凝视珠江三角洲：天空万里无云、湛蓝如许。低头一看，我不禁欢呼起来！珠江三角洲实在太壮观了，简直妙不可言！河流和湖泊星罗棋布，在阳光下熠熠生辉；而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀刻画出来一般；田野块块分明，与棋盘别无二致。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神明和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹正发生在这片土地上。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:03, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
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Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
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这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
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秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
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But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
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秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
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The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
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'''结论'''<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
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斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
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''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
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““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
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'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
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Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
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这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
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审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
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对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
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In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
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总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
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In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
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在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
<br />
在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
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In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
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Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
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FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
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例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
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传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
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Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
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“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
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''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
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一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
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Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
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Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
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[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
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在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这三篇文章在穿越不同情景时，都试图采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和结果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的描述的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
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Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
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It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
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'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
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与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
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需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
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遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
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重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
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朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
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The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
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朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
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文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
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文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
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文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
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Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
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这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地体验到的紧张感，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，于是他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
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只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
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歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
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'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
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Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
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他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
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不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
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不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
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The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
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郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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路上的崎岖加上内心的不安，使得郁达夫上山的一路都走得不平稳。他此行的意义也模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫启程桐君山参观一座道观。一下渡船，山路崎岖漆黑，他被一块乱石绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候选择去爬山似乎不可理喻，而正常的行走也几乎不可能了。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
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渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
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虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
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In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
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在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--<br />
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在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在去钓台的船上，郁达夫赏景后觉得疲倦，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦中出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility.<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族堕落的冷落之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
<br />
方令孺《琅琊山游记》中的自我指称策略<br />
自我指称策略通过凸显文本的建构性对文本明确、权威的意义提出了质疑。该策略指出，文本意义的多元性进一步证实了它们在谈判视角、立场和身份上的重要性。方令孺在对其两天旅行的叙述结尾处写道：“琅琊山上仍有许多名胜古迹；如果命中注定，我还会再来一次。我没有什么可以补充的了(我的重点)。”<br />
方令孺,《琅琊山游记》, 编著，马忠林，杨国璋, 王钟华, 北京:中国旅游出版社, 1982:148.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的一种特别的菜肴和葡萄酒。对她的叙述进行这种乏味且虎头蛇尾的补充之后，她又加了两段来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”----[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
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'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
主人公叔叔的事业说明了历史意识的减弱。 本文力求指出，散文的矛盾之处在于其摆脱了宏大叙事的束缚，并且对中国崛起的消费文化中历史意识的衰落做出了贡献。<br />
<br />
'''散文与小说'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文化形式，可以与小说联系起来。 在20世纪的中国，可能直到1980年代中期为止，史诗般的现实主义小说一直是文学的主要形式和重要的意识形态工具。中国现实主义小说可以用乔治·卢卡奇（GeorgLukács）的方式解释为史诗。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条，即争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦幻与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡奇，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者脱离了前者直接而毫无疑问的理想与现实的统一（56）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
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换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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小说中的抒情繁荣被等同于革命唯心主义和乌托邦主义时，似乎就显得格格不入，其一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期导致的苦难和贫穷；另一方面，实现了共产主义最终理想，实现了理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式下的小说不是我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚，舒服蜷缩在沙发上看的那类小说。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启发性的，其宏大的叙事投射了物质实践。 它的目的是鼓励您走上街头或走进贫困的村庄，并与其他同伴一起创造历史。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
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散文在当代中国的兴起，标志着史诗模式下的小说已经面临濒危。这不仅仅是体裁的问题，我也不是在建议读者们蜂拥去写散文而放弃小说。我的观点是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，或者更普遍地，让位于感性的散文结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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散文在当代中国的兴起，意味着史诗类型小说的下坡。这不仅是题材问题，我也不是说建议读者们一股脑地去阅读散文作品而将小说抛诸脑后。我的意思是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，更笼统地说就是在让位于感性的散文式结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
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关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
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Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
<br />
普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
<br />
脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child.<br />
<br />
她的故事津津乐道于无关紧要的小事、小躁动、小琐事、小焦虑，描写都市人生活中的随机事件。对都市小资的狭隘浪漫和个性''小资''的描写耐人寻味，是她的强项和魅力所在。散文式描写在狭窄拥挤的城市环境中的生活，不仅是她小说的特点，也构成了她散文的主要主题。她的散文在对应和照应她的小说的同时，她对散文写作的思考也起到了凸显中国现代文学中散文主义审美品质的作用。<br />
张爱玲的散文集《流言》（有时译为《写在沃尔特上》）是中国城市文化中出现的散文的一个引人注目的例子。 在散文集的开篇《童言无忌》一文中，她仿佛在散文中随意畅聊、异想天开、任性地宣泄压抑的感情，像一个无拘无束的孩子。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
<br />
While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
<br />
为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
<br />
当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
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This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
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这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
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关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
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更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
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'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
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Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
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这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
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'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
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王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
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《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
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Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
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评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
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这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
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从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
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The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
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本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
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The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
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See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
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Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
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阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
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探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
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比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
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进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于文学写作以推动社会变革。"文革 "后，他在一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，它是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。叔叔的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的传声筒，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
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The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
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叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
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叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
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生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
<br />
The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
<br />
<br />
他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
<br />
它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
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''Mary Scoggin''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
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拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
<br />
玛丽·斯高格<br />
<br />
文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
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诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
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In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
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杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
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在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
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In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
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鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
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在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
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在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
至于称这一文体为现代中国“杂文”， 是因为其浓烈的中国特性。西方人理解起来，确实困难。因此杂文研究对他们来说也很难。美国作家赛珍珠曾说过：“这一文体称为“杂文”， 太过独特，这真的太难以理解了。这就是为什么只有中国人自己能评析“杂文”这一事物。（张华笔下的严修[除注释之外，其他所有部分为奚慕里翻译]）<br />
在这篇文章中，作为一个赫赫有名的作家与评论家，严修以一种相对直率的方式,明晰地表达出鲁迅蔑视以外国权威标准对散文体裁分名别类。然而严修也保留了类似“杂文”式，典型的轻松趣味风格。他进一步进行他的评述：--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
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Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然长期以来，外国人都不承认中国杂文，但我们也不必为此忧心忡忡。即使一个外国人突发奇想地要研究杂文，恐怕研究到身无分文，饥肠辘辘，他/她也研究不出什么东西，而我们中国人理解起杂文却很轻松。但如果中国读者不能理解或一直赏析杂文的话，那么其也将不复存在了。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因与意义就很值得认真地研究并理论化。（同上）。<br />
杂文晦涩难懂，但也是富于趣味的一种散文体裁。因此在免于破产的风险下，我真的建议大家勇敢地研究并对这一文化形成理论。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:55, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
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So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
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从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
<br />
在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
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杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
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一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
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像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
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就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”是一种显而易见对杂文的不着边际的评价，这种情况下支持课外的流派是下层知识分子，例如邵燕心，他本身是怀着悲痛的心从中国核心诗歌期刊《诗刊》辞职，并全身心将写杂文作为其正式职业。在看到某不知名的省级干部“呸呸呸”的不满评价，同时也感受到自己对这种令人大失所望的事所担负的责任，邵写下他所发现的，这位省级干部的确对党、民族以及人民写有挖苦、讽刺、非难的文章，就像“到处都在呸呸呸”一样，他进一步发出警告，这样的言论正传播一种绝望沮丧的氛围。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
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第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
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第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
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Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
<br />
沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
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仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
<br />
在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
<br />
实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
<br />
She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
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In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
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当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
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It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
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''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
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这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
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Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
<br />
这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
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1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
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2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
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3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
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4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
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有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices.<br />
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这种坏文学不仅仅只是暴政或者夸张修辞之下的残缺产物，也不只是一种业余文学的表达或者一种挣扎着现代化的文化的表现。取而代之的是，它们被认为是近乎非自愿的标记，不是美感，而是我们必须呼吁缺少一个更好的词“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的严格审查而发现的，再次是由于缺乏 更好的词是“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
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Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
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文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
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在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
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It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
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这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
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As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
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历史背景下的音调<br />
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为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
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The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
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例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
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情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_cult&diff=11191420201130 cult2020-12-14T04:19:06Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
1.Traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology incorporates the yin (negative) and yang (positive) theory and the theory of the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire and earth), both containing naive dialectical ideas of ancient China.<br />
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中医和药理学结合了阴（阳）和阳（阳）论以及五种元素（金属，木材，水，火和土）的理论，都包含了中国古代的幼稚辩证法思想。<br />
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中医药学是阴阳学说和五行学说(金、木、水、火、土)相结合的产物，蕴涵着中国古代朴素的辩证思想。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:15, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Doctors of Chinese medicine adopt various methods to treat diseases. One of them is utilizing medicinal herbs, animals and minerals. The legend about Shen Nong (God of Husbandry) tasting a hundred kinds of herbs shows that the ancient Chinese used natural substances to cure diseases. <br />
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中医采用多种方法治疗疾病。 其中之一是利用草药，动物和矿物质。 关于神农（牧神）品尝一百种草药的传说表明，古代中国人使用天然物质治病。<br />
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中医用多种方法治病。方法之一就是利用各种草药、动物和矿物。神农氏尝百草的传说故事，显示出古代中国人已经使用天然物质来治病。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:15, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.In acupuncture, a point means a specific spot on the body at which needling or moxibustion is applied to evoke a certain reaction in certain regions or viscera so as to produce therapeutic effects. <br />
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在针灸中，穴位是指身体上的特定部位，在该部位进行针刺或艾灸以引起某些部位或内脏的某种反应，从而产生治疗效果。<br />
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在针灸学中，穴位指身体上的特定部位，在该部位进行针灸或艾灸以引起某些部位或脏器的某种反应，进而产生治疗效果。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:15, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.Chinese medicine could not have been invented by a single person. It was probably invented by ancient civilizations in the course of daily life. At ancient times, when people recovered from a disease on eating a specific animal or plant, they would remember the formula or herb that had reputedly cured the disease. In Chinese mythology, Shennong collected these formulas or herbs.<br />
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中药不可能是一个人发明的。 它可能是古代文明在日常生活中发明的。 在远古时代，当人们通过食用某种特定的动物或植物而从疾病中康复时，他们会记得据说已经治愈该疾病的配方或草药。 在中国神话中，神农收集了这些配方或草药。<br />
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中药不可能是一个人发明的。它可能是古代文明在日常生活中的产物。在古代，人们通过服用特定的动植物来治愈疾病，康复后，他们会记住被认为是能治愈疾病的配方或草药。在中国神话传说中，神农氏收集了这些配方和草药。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:15, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1 中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine carries the experience and theoretical knowledge of the ancient Chinese people in fighting against diseases. It is a medical theory system that has been gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient materialism and spontaneous dialectics.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 望、闻、问、切四诊各具有独特的作用，又都有局限性，不能互相替代。必须四诊并用才能全面收集辨证论治所需要的各方面资料。<br />
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The four diagnoses of observing, listening , inquiring, and feeling the patient’s pulse each have their own unique functions, but they all have their limitations and cannot be substituted for each other. The four diagnoses must be used together to comprehensively collect all aspects of data needed for syndrome differentiation and treatment.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段，是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗全身疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique method of treating diseases in China. It uses the conduction of meridians and acupoints to treat systemic diseases.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 周代已经使用望、闻、问、切等诊病方法。秦汉时期，形成了《黄帝内经》这样具有系统理论的著作，此书是现存最早的一部中医理论性经典著作。<br />
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The Zhou Dynasty has used the methods of diagnosis including observing,listening,inquiring and feeling the patient’s pulse. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, a book with a systematic theory such as "The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon" was formed, which is the earliest existing theoretical classic of Chinese medicine.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.气血津液都是机体腑脏、经络等组织器官进行生理活动所需要的能量，而气血津液又依赖于腑脏、经络等组织器官正常的生理活动。如果气血津液代谢不正常或腑脏、经络等组织器官不能进行正常的生理活动，就会引起疾病的发生。<br />
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Qi, blood and body fluid provide energy required for the body’s viscera, main and collateral channels, and other tissues and organs, and also depend on their normal physiological activities. If the metabolism of qi, blood and body fluid is abnormal or the viscera, main and collateral channels, and other tissues and organs cannot carry out normal physiological activities, it will cause diseases. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qi, blood and body fluid provide energy required for the body issues such as viscera, main and collateral channels to engage in physiological activities, while the formers also depend on normal physiological activities of the latters. Any malfunction of them will cause diseases.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.简单来说，望诊包括一般望诊和舌诊两部分内容，一般望诊又包括望神察色，望形态、望五官等，舌诊包括望舌质望舌苔。<br />
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To put it simply, observing diagnosis includes two parts: general inspection and tongue inspection. General inspection includes observing appearance, body statue and movements, and five apertures. Tongue inspection consists of observing tongue body and tongue fur. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, observing diagnosis includes general inspection and tongue inspection. The former includes observing appearance, body statue and movements, and five apertures. The latter consists of observing tongue body and tongue fur.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.我们将艾条的一端点燃后，距施灸部位皮肤约2-3厘米处进行熏灸，使患者局部产生温热感而无灼痛为宜，一般每穴施灸15分钟左右，以皮肤潮红为度。<br />
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We ignite one end of a moxa stick and place it 2 to 3 centimeters away from the specific point to bring a mild warmth to the local place. The patient do not have a burning sensation. It will last some 15 minutes until the skin turns slightly red. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.华佗五禽戏真实反映了中国人民群众健身文化的发展变迁，开创了祛病健身的体育医疗先河，展现了养生哲学和道家文化的深厚审美底蕴，具有重要的历史价值和养生医疗价值。<br />
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Five-Animal Exercises of Hua Tuo truly reflects the development and changes of Chinese people's fitness culture, leads the way in medical treatment through sports which helps to cure diseases and keep fit, and shows the profound aesthetic heritage of regimen philosophy and Taoist culture, thus it has important values in history, health preservation, medical treatment. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
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Chinese medicine, complete with ancient people’s experience gained from fighting with ailments and theoretical knowledge, is a medical theory system gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectics.<br />
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Chinese medicine embodies the experiences and theoretical knowledge which gained from ancient Chinese’ fightings with diseases. It’s a medical theoretical system which gradually formed and developed through long time medical practices under the guidance of ancient Naive Materialism and spontaneous dialectics.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.远古时代人们为了生存从生活经验中得知某些天然物质可以治疗疾病与伤痛，这是药物的源始。<br />
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In ancient times, people came to find that some natural substances could help to cure diseases and pains when striving to survive. This lies the origin of medicine.<br />
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In ancient times, in order to survive, people found out from their living experiences that some natural substances could cure diseases and relieved pains, which is the origin of medicine.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸可以纠正患者的异常食欲，通过对神经系统的调节，可以抑制胃酸分泌过多，达到不乏力、不饥饿的目的。<br />
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Acupuncture, by dint of adjusting the patient’s abnormal diet and nervous system, can restrain stomach from secreting excessive acid, thus achieving the purpose of not being fatigued and hungry.<br />
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Acupuncture, by dint of adjusting patients’ nervous system, can improve their appetite, and restrain stomach from secreting excessive acid, so as to not being tired and hungry.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4."神农尝百草……一日而遇七十毒"是流传下来最早的典故，真实地反映了人与自然、疾病斗争，逐步地发现和应用药物，积累医学经验的艰辛过程。<br />
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“Shen Nong tried hundreds of herbs and became poisoned for seventy times...” is the earliest allusion handed down. It truly reflects what a tough process people have experienced from fighting against nature and diseases to gradually discovering and applying medicines to eventually accumulating medical experience.<br />
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“ Shen Nong tried hundreds of herbs …and met many poisonous weeds within a day” is the earliest allusion handed down. It truly reflects the tough process that people fight against nature and diseases. People have accumulated medical experiences from gradually discovering to applying medicines.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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1. The approaches that make up traditional Chinese medicine (such as acupuncture, tai chi, and herbal products) have been the subjects of many clinical studies and scientific reviews. <br />
组成中药（如针灸，太极拳和草药产品）的方法已成为许多临床研究和科学评论的主题--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 09:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)。<br />
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中医的组成部分(如针灸、太极和草药)一直是许多临床研究和科学评论的主题。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. In Taoist thinking, the internal workings of the body were likened to phenomena seen in the natural world. Therefore, Chinese Medicine is often described in terms such as rivers, seas, fire, earth and wood. <br />
在道家思想中，身体的内部运作被比作自然界中的现象。 因此，经常用河流，海洋，火，泥土和木材等术语来描述中药。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 09:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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道家认为，身体内部的运作与自然界中的现象相似。所以中医往往是用江、海、火、土、木等术语来描述的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. Results from a number of studies, however, suggest real acupuncture may help ease types of pain that are often chronic, such as low-back pain, neck pain, osteoarthritis/knee pain, and carpal tunnel syndrome.<br />
然而，许多研究的结果表明，真正的针灸可以缓解通常为慢性的疼痛类型，例如腰背疼痛，颈部疼痛，骨关节炎/膝关节疼痛和腕管综合症。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 09:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，许多研究结果表明，真正的针灸可能有助于缓解慢性疼痛类疾病，如腰痛、颈痛、骨关节炎或膝关节痛和腕管综合征。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. The history of Chinese medicine begins about the second century BC because there are no clear records of medical techniques that are older that. There exist written descriptions about disease from the Shang Dynasty era (1600-1046 BC), but there isn't a record of their medical techniques. <br />
中医的历史大约始于公元前二世纪，因为尚无较早的医学技术记录。 尚有关于商朝时期（公元前1600年至1046年）的疾病的书面描述，但没有关于其医疗技术的记录。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 09:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中医的历史大约始于公元前二世纪，因为没有比这更为古老的明确的医学技术记录。商朝(公元前1600-1046年)就有关于疾病的文字描述了，然而并没有关于他们医疗技术的记录。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
1. 中医的阴阳说认为世上一切万物都是由阴阳两种互为补充的能量组成。阴阳说强调世间万物相互依存互相联系的关系。<br />
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TCM understands that everything is composed of two complementary energies; one energy is yin and the other is yang; one cannot exist without the other. This is the yin/yang principle of interconnectedness and interdependence.<br />
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2. 中药黄芩传统上用于治疗发烧,肝病和肺病.<br />
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The Chinese skullcap - known as Huang-Qin - is traditionally used for fever, liver and lung problems.<br />
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3. 研究发现，针灸可以极大地减少痛经的严重程度和持续时间。<br />
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Researchers have found that acupuncture can significantly reduce the severity and duration of period pain.<br />
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4. 自从“一带一路”倡议首次提出以来，中医药作为医疗行业不可或缺的一部分，不断挖掘发展的潜力，以推动其改革，从而更好地打入国际市场。<br />
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Since "The Belt and Road Initiative" proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 06:39, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.中医药与西医药优势互补，相互促进，共同维护和增进民众健康。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine and western medicine have their different strengths. They work together to protect people from diseases and improve public health.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.准确的诊断必须以四种诊断方法，即视诊、听嗅诊、问诊和触诊为基础。<br />
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An accurate diagnosis must be based on four diagnostic methods, namely observing, listening and smelling, inquiring, and palpating.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸是一种有效的能够替代药物治疗抑郁症、吸毒、酗酒、吸烟和暴饮暴食以及其他成瘾行为的疗法。<br />
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Acupuncture is an effective alternative to drugs for the treatment of depression, drug and alcohol addiction, and other addictive behaviors such as smoking and overeating. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中医药在历史发展进程中，兼容并蓄、创新开放、形成了独特的生命观、健康观、疾病观、防治观，实现了自然科学和人文科学的融合和统一,蕴含了中华民族深邃的哲学思想。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine has created unique views on life, on fitness, on diseases, and on the prevention and treatment of diseases during its long history of absorption and innovation. It represents a combination of natural sciences and humanities, embracing profound philosophical ideas of the Chinese nation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有发展。<br />
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The traditional Chineses medicine originated in primitive society and formed basic theory in the Warring States period, later made progress in all ages.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.望闻问切是中医用语,望，指观气色；闻，指听声息；问；指询问症状；切；指摸脉象。合称四诊。<br />
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Four Diagnostic Methods like look, listen, ask and feel the pulse are the terms of Traditional Chinese medicine. Look is for facial complexion, and listen is for sound and breath,and ask is for symptom and the last is for pulse condition.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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3.2006年中国中医科学院申报针灸经国务院列入第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录。<br />
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In 2006, the acupuncture was declared by the China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine and approved by the State Counil to be listed as the first batch of intangible cultural heritage list.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.唐代孙思邈总结前人的理论并总结经验，收集5000多个药方，并采用辨证治疗，因医德最高，被人尊为“药王”。<br />
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Summarizing the theories of predecessors and their experience, the Su Simiao in Tang Dynasty collected more than 5000 prescriptions and adopted a dialectic therapy. He was famed as the "king of medicine" due to his highest medical ethics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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1、中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
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Chinese medicine carries the experience and theories of ancient Chinese people's fighting against diseases and is a medical theory system which was gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practices following the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectic thought.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:27, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、中医药学是中华民族在生存与发展过程中与疾病作斗争的实践经验总结。在其形成和发展中受到中国传统文化的熏陶,与之紧密融合,形成了以中国传统文化为底蕴的独特的理论体系。<br />
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Chinese pharmacy is the summary of practices and expirence of Chinese people's fighting against diseases in the course of its existence and development. It formed a unique theory system based on Chinese traditional culture because it had been influenced by and closely integrated with Chinese traditional culture during its formation and development.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:27, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、“家有三年艾，郎中不用来”。艾灸使用的艾草需要经过三年的陈干置放，调理效果才好，但是如果使用劣质艾条的话会直接损伤到健康。<br />
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"If you have a three-year-old wormwood, you can keep doctors away." The wormwood used in moxa-moxibustion need to be hanged in the dry air for three years and only in this way can it bring a good conditioning effect, but it will directly harm our health if we choose inferior wormwood.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:27, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、“中药”一词，最早记载于《神农本草经》，将药物按有毒无毒分为上、中、下三品。<br />
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"Sheng Nong's Herbal Classic" is the earliest book which recorded the word "Chinese Medicine" and it classified medicine into top grade, middle grade and lower grade according to its toxicity.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:27, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
1.Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners use various mind and body practices (such as acupuncture and tai chi) as well as herbal products to address health problems. <br />
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中医从业人员运用各种身心方法（例如针灸和太极拳）以及草药来解决健康问题。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:27, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Early Chinese physicians had to depend on what they could see or feel like any sort of anatomical study or dissection was not widely practiced. <br />
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早期的中国医师不得不依靠自己能看到或感觉到的东西，因为没有进行任何形式的解剖学研究或解剖。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:27, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.Studies suggest that acupuncture stimulates the release of the body’s natural painkillers and affects areas in the brain involved in processing pain; however, some trials suggest that real acupuncture and sham acupuncture are equally effective, indicating a placebo effect. <br />
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研究表明，针灸刺激人体天然止痛药的释放，并影响大脑中涉及疼痛处理的区域； 但是，一些试验表明，真正的针灸和假针灸是同等有效的，表明有安慰剂作用。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:27, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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研究表明，针灸刺激人体释放天然的止痛剂，并影响大脑中感知疼痛的区域； 但是，一些试验表明，真正的针灸和假针灸具有同等功效，表现在都有安慰剂的效用。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.The first clear medical treatise is the Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon. In the text, the use of moxibustion or acupuncture to manipulate the Yin and Yang are described in ways similar to that practiced nowadays. <br />
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第一个明确的医学论文是《黄帝内经》。 在本文中，以类似于当今的方式描述了使用艾灸或针灸操纵阴阳的方法。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:27, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《黄帝内经》是我国第一本医学专著，它描述了如何使用艾灸或针灸调理阴阳平衡，其方法跟现在使用的方法类似。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
1. 中药的采收时节和方法对确保药物的质量有着密切的关联。因为动植物在其生长发育的不同时期其药用部分所含有效及有害成分各不相同，因此药物的疗效和毒副作用也往往有较大差异，故药材的采收必须在适当的时节采集。<br />
The time and method of harvesting herbal medicines are closely related to ensuring the quality of medicines. Because the medicinal parts of plants and animals contain different effective and harmful components at different times of their growth and development, the efficacy and side effects of drugs often vary greatly, so the herbs must be harvested at the appropriate time of year.<br />
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2.现代药学 随着化学、物理学、生物学、解剖学和生理学的兴起，大大促进了药学的发展。其主要标志就是学科分工越来越细，尤其是20世纪以来，早期没有分科的药物，因科学技术的发展，已先后发展成为独立的学科，从而使药学分离出去。<br />
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Modern pharmacy has greatly contributed to the development of pharmacy with the rise of chemistry, physics, biology, anatomy and physiology. The main sign of this is the increasing division of labor, especially since the 20th century, drugs, which were not divided into separate disciplines in the early days, have developed into independent disciplines due to the development of science and technology, thus making pharmacy separate from other disciplines.<br />
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3.针灸由“针”和“灸”构成，是东方医学的重要组成部分之一，其内容包括针灸理论、腧穴、针灸技术以及相关器具，在形成、应用和发展的过程中，具有鲜明的中华民族文化与地域特征，是基于中华民族文化和科学传统产生的宝贵遗产。<br />
2006年中国中医科学院申报针灸经国务院列入第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion, consisting of "needle" and "moxibustion", is one of the important parts of oriental medicine, including acupuncture theory, acupoints, acupuncture and moxibustion techniques and related instruments, in the process of formation, application and development, with distinctive Chinese culture and regional characteristics, is a valuable heritage based on Chinese cultural and scientific traditions.<br />
In 2006, the Chinese Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine declared acupuncture and moxibustion to be included in the first national list of intangible cultural heritage by the State Council.<br />
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4.中医药学的中、外交流增加，近三十年来这种交流尤为频繁。国际中医药学术会如亚细亚中医药学术大会、国际中草药学会均召开了多次。中外药学科研人员互派或应邀进行学术交流也不少。中国中医药事业的发展，使中药学在国外也日益受到重视，除日本、朝鲜、马来西亚等东南亚国家使用与研究中药防治疾病外、在西方一些国家也逐渐采用与研究中药防治疾病。<br />
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Chinese and foreign exchanges in TCM have increased, and such exchanges have been particularly frequent in the past three decades. International Chinese medicine academic conferences such as the Asian Chinese Medicine Academic Conference and the International Society of Chinese Herbal Medicine have been held many times. Chinese and foreign pharmaceutical researchers have also sent each other or been invited to carry out academic exchanges. With the development of Chinese TCM, Chinese herbal medicine has become more and more important in foreign countries. In addition to Japan, North Korea, Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries, some Western countries have also gradually adopted and researched Chinese herbal medicine for disease prevention and treatment.<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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1.中医起源于6000多年前的神农氏时代，这位著名的中国古代药王所生活的时代被认为是中医史上的萌芽阶段。中医学在长期的发展过程中，逐渐形成了一整套医学原则和观点。首先，中医认为“万物人为贵”。中医将“救死扶伤”视为职业道德规范。第二，中医注重无病防病，强调以食补来延缓衰老，减少疾病。第三，中医理论认为，社会环境与自然环境相互作用、互为依存，人的身心也是一种相互作用、互为依存的关系。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) originated from Shennong, the famous king of medicine in ancient China who lived about 6000 years ago. The time Shennong lived is considered to be the embryo stage of the development of TCM. During its long process of development, TCM has gradually developed a set of medical principles and concepts. First, it believes that “nothing is more important than a human life”. It regards “healing the wounded and rescuing the dying” as its professional ethics. Second, it pays attention to the early prevention of diseases, advocating the food treatment to defer senility and reduce diseases. Third, in the TCM theory, the relationship between social and natural environment, as well as the relationship between human body and spirit, is of mutual influence and interdependence.<br />
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2.针灸是中医学的重要组成部分。按照中医的经络理论，针灸疗法主要是通过疏通经络来达到阴阳归于平衡，使脏腑趋于调和之目的。其特点是“内病外治”。针灸以其独特的优势，流传至今并传播到了世界，与中餐、功夫、中药一起被海外誉为中国的“新四大国粹”。<br />
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Acupuncture is an important part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)。In accordance with the “main and collateral channels” theory in TCM，the purpose of acupuncture is to unchoke the channel so as to keep the body‘s yin and yang balanced and achieve reconciliation between the internal organs.It features internal diseases being treated with external therapies.With its unique advantages，acupuncture has been passed down over generationsand has now spread over the world.Nowadays， acupuncture，along with Chinese food，kung fu，and traditional Chinese medicine，has been internationally hailed as one of the “four new national essences.”<br />
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3.秦汉时期（前221—公元220）的中医典籍《黄帝内经》，系统论述了人的生理、病理、疾病以及“治未病”和疾病治疗的原则及方法，确立了中医学的思维模式，标志着从单纯的临床经验积累发展到了系统理论总结阶段，形成了中医药理论体系框架。<br />
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The Huang Di Nei Jing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) compiled during the Qin and Han times (221 BC-AD 220) offered systematic discourses on human physiology, on pathology, on the symptoms of illness, on preventative treatment, and on the principles and methods of treatment. This book defined the framework of TCM, thus serving as a landmark in TCM's development and symbolizing the transformation from the accumulation of clinical experience to the systematic summation of theories. A theoretical framework for TCM had been in place.<br />
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4.在数千年的发展过程中，中医药不断吸收和融合各个时期先进的科学技术和人文思想，不断创新发展，理论体系日趋完善，技术方法更加丰富，形成了鲜明的特点。<br />
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During its course of development spanning a couple of millennia, TCM has kept drawing and assimilating advanced elements of natural science and humanities. Through many innovations, its theoretical base covered more ground and its remedies against various diseases expanded, displaying unique characteristics.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:42, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
1.中医学运用阴阳理论来解释人体的生理和病理现象。同时，阴阳也是诊断和治疗疾病的法则。<br />
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In TCM theory, Yin and Yang are used to explain physiological and pathological phenomena of the body. They are also the principles of diagnosing and treating diseases.<br />
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2.中医将人体看成是气、形、神的统一体，以“望、闻、问、切”为其独特的诊断过程。<br />
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TCM considers human body as a unity of Qi, Xing and Shen. The diagnostic process of TCM distinguishes itself by “observation，auscultation and olfaction, inquiry and pulse diagnosis.<br />
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3.针灸是一种发源于中国且疗效神奇的治疗方法。针指直接刺入人的身体。灸指艾灸，是中医里特有的一种疗法，用植物叶子曾来烟熏身体的某个特定部位。<br />
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Acupuncture which is called Zhenjiu in Chineseis a medical treatment that originated in China. Zhen means needles that pierce one's body. Jiu means moxibustion, a special treatment in Traditional Chinese Medicine, using Plant leaves to smoke certain parts of the human body.<br />
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4.如今我们需要使用现代科技以及思维方式，向世界解释中医治疗特定疾病的原理，并证明中医能够治愈疾病。<br />
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Now we need to use modern technology and ways of thinking to explain to the world how TCM works on specific diseases and [to] prove that it can cure diseases.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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1.Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a broad range of medicine practices sharing common concepts which have been developed in China and are based on a tradition of more than 2,000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage (tui na), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy.<br />
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中医（TCM）是一种广泛的医学实践，它们具有2000多年的传统，并在中国已发展出一些共同的概念，包括各种形式的草药，针灸，推拿，运动（气功）和饮食疗法。<br />
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2.Acupuncture and Moxibustion are indispensable parts of traditional Chinese medicine in the prevention and control of disease. Since the founding of the Peoples' Republic of China, these arts have been developed and are highly regarded by the international academic community.<br />
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针灸是中医药防治疾病必不可少的部分。自中华人民共和国成立以来，这些艺术得到了发展，并受到了国际学术界的高度评价。<br />
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3.Bian Qiao, Wade-Giles romanization Pien Ch'iao, also called Bian Que, (born c. 5th century bce), Chinese physician, the first to rely primarily on pulse and physical examination for the diagnosis of disease. Although some facts are known about his life, Bian Qiao is also a somewhat mythical figure.<br />
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韦德·吉尔斯（Wade-Giles）罗马化片变迁，也称为边Qu（Bian Que）（生于公元前5世纪），中国医师，首先是依靠脉冲和体格检查来诊断疾病的人。尽管有关他一生的一些事实众所周知，但扁桥还是一个有点神秘的人物。<br />
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4.Zhang Zhongjing (Chinese: 張仲景; 150—219), formal name Zhang Ji (张机), was a Chinese pharmacologist, physician, inventor, and writer of the Eastern Han dynasty and one of the most eminent Chinese physicians during the later years of the Han dynasty.<br />
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Zhang Zhongjing（中文：张仲景； 150—219），正式名称为Zhang Ji（张机），是东汉朝代的中国药理学家，医师，发明家和作家，也是后来的最杰出的中国医师之一汉代。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 05:22, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1. 简而言之，中药就是指在中医理论指导下，用于预防、治疗、诊断疾病并具有康复与保健作用的物质。<br />
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In short, Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) refers to substances that are used for prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases and have functions of rehabilitation and health care under the guidance of TCM theories.<br />
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In short, Chinese medicine refers to substances that are used to prevent, treat, and diagnose diseases under the guidance of Chinese medicine theory and have the functions of rehabilitation and health care.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:29, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 药理学是基础医学与临床医学，医学与药学之间的桥梁学科。在药理学科学的理论指导下进行临床实践，在实验研究的基础上丰富药理学理论。<br />
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Pharmacology is a bridge between basic medicine and clinical medicine, medicine and pharmacy. To carry out clinical practice under the guidance of the theory of pharmacology and enrich the theory of pharmacology on the basis of experimental research.<br />
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Pharmacology is a bridge between basic medicine and clinical medicine, medicine and pharmacy. Clinical practice is carried out under the guidance of pharmacology theory, which has been enriched through experimental research.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. 针灸疗法的特点是治病不靠吃药，只是在病人身体的一定部位用针刺入，达到刺潋神经并引起局部反应，或用火的温热刺激烧灼局部，以达到治病的目的。前一种称作针法，后一种称作灸法，统称针灸疗法。<br />
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The characteristic of acupuncture therapy is that the treatment is not taking medicine, but a certain part of the patient's body is penetrated by acupuncture to reach the stinging nerve and cause the local reaction, or the warm stimulation of fire is used to cauterize the local part, so as to achieve the purpose of treating the disease. The former is called acupuncture and moxibustion, and the latter is called moxibustion.<br />
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The characteristic of acupuncture therapy is that the treatment has nothing to do with taking medicine,what needs to be done is pricking with needles in certain parts of the patient’s body to stimulate the nerve and cause local reaction, or burns the local part with the warm stimulation of fire,so as to achieve the purpose of curing the disease. The former is called acupuncture and moxibustion, and the latter is called moxibustion.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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4. 中药是中华民族五千年传统文化的瑰宝，是千百年医疗实践得出的结晶，也是世界优秀文化的精华。我国中药产业经过几十年的发展，已具有了一定的规模和研发能力，在中药材、中药饮片和剂型等方面取得了一定的成绩。同时中药产业由于自身的快速增长，加之有力的政策扶植，及城市化进程的加快都将进一步促进我国中药事业的发展，中药发展将进入一个新的时期。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine is the treasure of the traditional culture of 5000 years of Chinese nation, is thousands of years of medical practice that crystallization, is also the world 's outstanding culture essence. Traditional Chinese medicine industry after decades of development, already has a certain scale and R&D capability, in Chinese herbal medicines, Chinese herbal pieces and dosage form has made some achievements. At the same time, Chinese traditional medicine the industry due to its rapid growth, coupled with the strong policy support, and the city changes a course accelerate, will further promote the development of the cause of Chinese medicine,<br />
Chinese medicine development will enter a new period.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 06:59, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. In short, traditional Chinese medicine refers to substances used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis of diseases, which are able to rehabilitate and care the body under the guidance of traditional Chinese medicine theories.<br />
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2. Pharmacology is a subject that bridges basic medicine and clinical medicine and between medicine and pharmacy. Clinical practice is guided by the theories of pharmacological sciences, and pharmacological theories are enriched on the basis of experimental research. <br />
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3. Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is characterized by the fact that the treatment does not rely on medicine, but only pricks with needles in certain parts of the patient’s body to stimulate the nerve and cause local reaction, or burns the local area with the warm stimulation of fire, so as to cure the disease. The former method is called acupuncture, and the latter is moxibustion, collectively known as acupuncture and moxibustion therapy.<br />
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4. Chinese medicine is the treasure of 5,000 years of Chinese traditional culture, the crystallization of thousands of years of medical practice, while the essence of the world’s excellent culture. After decades of development, China’ s TCM industry has reached a certain scale and R&D capability, and has made certain achievements in Chinese herbal medicines, Chinese herbal Yinpian and dosage forms, etc. At the same time, due to the rapid growth of the Chinese medicine industry, strong policies and the accelerating process of urbanization, the development of Chinese medicine will further be promoted, entering a new period.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:25, 2 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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1. A rich treasure house created by ancient Chinese people in their long years of struggle against diseases, traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology forms an independent school within the healing arts.<br />
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中国古代人民在与疾病，传统医学和药理学的长期抗争中建立了一座丰富的宝库，构成了康复艺术领域的一所独立学校。<br />
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在与疾病的长期斗争中，中国古代人民在传统医学和药理学成就颇丰，建立了康复领域一个独立的流派。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:00, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. Chinese medicine is concerned with the general physiological changes which may have brought about the condition and, beyond operating or applying some form of therapy, seeks to improve the patient’s ability to resist the disease. <br />
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中医关注可能引起疾病的一般生理变化，除了进行手术或采取某种形式的治疗外，中药还致力于提高患者抵抗疾病的能力。<br />
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3. Since the establishment of New China, the Chinese government has made great efforts to promote the development of natural medicines, which are believed to have minor or no side-effects.<br />
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新中国成立以来，中国政府为促进天然药物的发展做出了巨大的努力，人们认为天然药物的副作用很小或没有副作用。<br />
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新中国成立以来，中国政府为促进天然药物的发展做出了巨大的努力，人们认为其的副作用很小或没有副作用。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:00, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. Acupuncture and moxibustion are important components of Chinese traditional medicine. The historical development of the two therapies shows Chinese people’s wisdom and creativity.<br />
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针灸是中药的重要组成部分。 两种疗法的历史发展表明了中国人民的智慧和创造力。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 17:08, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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针灸是中药的重要组成部分，这两种疗法的历史发展展现了中国人民的智慧和创造力。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:00, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
1.中医药在历史发展进程中，兼容并蓄、创新开放，形成了独特的生命观、健康观、疾病观、防治观，实现了自然科学与人文科学的融合和统一，蕴含了中华民族深邃的哲学思想。<br />
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TCM has created unique views on life, on fitness, on diseases and on the prevention and treatment of diseases during its long history of absorption and innovation. It represents a combination of natural sciences and humanities, embracing profound philosophical ideas of the Chinese nation. <br />
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2.保健灸法是中国独特的养生方法之一，不仅可用于强身保健，也可用于久病体虚之人的康复。所谓保健灸法，就是在身体某些特定穴位上施灸，以达到和气血、调经络、养脏腑、延年益寿的目的。<br />
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Health moxibustion is one of the unique health methods in China, which can be used not only for strengthening the body, but also for the rehabilitation of people who are chronically ill and deficient. Moxibustion is a method of applying moxibustion to certain specific points on the body in order to harmonise Qi and blood, regulate the meridians, nourish the internal organs and prolong life.<br />
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3.《本草纲目》是一部集十六世纪以前中国本草学大成的著作。是中国古代药学史上部头最大、内容最丰富的药学著作。<br />
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The Compendium of Materia Medica is a collection of the major achievements of Chinese herbology before the 16th century. It is the largest and richest pharmacological work in the history of ancient Chinese medicine.<br />
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The Compendium of Materia Medica is a collection of the great achievements of herbalism before the 16th century. In addition, it is a medical work with the richest content and the largest scale in the history of ancient Chinese medicine. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 06:25, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.唐代孙思邈总结前人的理论并总结经验，采集5000多个药方，且使用辨证治疗的方法。<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, Sun Simiao summarised the theories and experiences of his predecessors, collected more than 5,000 prescriptions, and used methods of treatment based on the identification of evidence.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Sun Simiao, a medical theorists in the Tang Dynasty, summarized the theories and experiences of the predecessors, collected more than 5000 prescriptions, and adopted dialectical methods. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 06:25, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
1. 中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本医学、韩国韩医学、朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was born in the primitive society. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine has been basically formed in the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. In addition, it has a far-reaching impact on the countries in the Chinese character cultural circle, such as Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, and Vietnam east medicine, which are all developed on the basis of traditional Chinese medicine.<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was born in primitive society. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine has been basically formed during the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. In addition, it has a far-reaching impact on the countries in the Chinese character cultural circle, such as Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, and Vietnam east medicine, all of which are all developed on the basis of traditional Chinese medicine.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 问诊是指中医采用对话方式，向病人及其知情者查询疾病的发生、发展情况和现在症状、治疗经过等，以诊断疾病的方法。<br />
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Diagnosis refers to the way that TCM uses dialogue to inquire about the occurrence, development, current symptoms and treatment process of the disease from patients and their insiders, so as to diagnose the disease.<br />
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Diagnosis through inquiry refers to the way that TCM uses dialogue to inquire about the occurrence, development, current symptoms and treatment process of the disease from patients and their insiders, so as to diagnose the disease. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:22, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段。它是一种“内病外治”的医术。是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗全身疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion is a unique method of treating diseases in China. It is a kind of internal disease and external treatment. Acupoints, as well as the application of acupoints, are used to treat diseases.<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique method of treating diseases in China. It is a kind of method to treat an internal illness by external treatment. It treats systemic diseases through the transmission between meridians and acupuncture points and the application of certain manipulation methods. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:22, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 中医药学是中国古代科学的瑰宝，发展千年，留下了许多精华，近年来国家也越来越重视传统中医的发展，建立健全中医药规律的治理体系，深入实施中医药法，把中医药财富继承好、发展好、创新好、利用好。<br />
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Chinese medicine is a gem of China's ancient science. It has left many essences in the development of the millennium. In recent years, the state has paid more and more attention to the development of traditional Chinese medicine, established and improved the governing system of Chinese medicine, implemented the Chinese medicine law in depth, inherited, developed, innovating, and made good use of the wealth of Chinese medicine.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:44, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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TCM is the epitome of the ancient Chinses science and has created a numebr of presious heritage. In recent years, the state has also attached increasing importance to the development of traditional Chinese medicine, establishing and improving the governance system of the laws of Chinese medicine, implementing the law on Chinese medicine in depth, and making good use of the wealth of Chinese medicine by inheriting, developing, innovating and making good use of it.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 06:04, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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1. 中医是中华文化不可分割的一部分，为中华的繁荣昌盛做出了极大的贡献。如今，中医和西医都被世界各地的医生用来治疗疾病。中医，以其独特的诊断手法、悠久的历史和显著的疗效被用来医治各种癌症和重大疾病。中药不像西药那样会产生许多副作用。<br />
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1. Traditional Chinese Medicine is an indispensable part of Chinese culture. It has made great contributions to the prosperity of China. Nowadays, both Traditional Chinese Medicine and western medicine are being used to cure people all around the world. The TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, long history and remarkable effects, have been used to treat cancer and other serious diseases. Unlike the western medicine, the TCM has fewer side effects.<br />
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1. As an indispensable part of Chinese culture, Traditional Chinese Medicine has made great contributions to the prosperity of China. Nowadays, both Traditional Chinese Medicine and western medicine are being used for treatment all around the world. The TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, long history and remarkable effects, has been used to treat cancer and other serious diseases. Unlike the western medicine, the TCM has fewer side effects.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:34, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在诊断方面，中医以四诊（望、闻、问、切）为技术原则，八纲辨证为指导总纲并把脏腑辨证、六经辨证、卫气营血辨证作为其辨证论治的基础。<br />
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2. In diagnosis, TCM takes the four diagnostic methods (inspection, inquiry, listening, smelling and palpitation) as its principal techniques,eight principal syndromes as its general guideline, and differentiation of syndrome according to the zang-fu theory, differentiation of syndromes according to the six-meridian theory, and differentiation of syndromes according to the theory of wei,qi, ying and xue as its basic theories of the differentiation of syndromes.<br />
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3. 针灸是治疗多种疾病的两种不同的治疗方法。针灸通过用不同类型的针穿刺身体的穴位来治疗疾病，而艾灸将点燃的木柴产生的热量施加在身体的某些穴位上。<br />
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3. Acupuncture and moxibustion are 2 distinct therapeutic approaches for curing a variety of diseases. Acupunture treats diseases by puncturing points of the body with different types of needles while moxibustion applies heat produced by ignited moxawood over certain points of the body.<br />
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4. 在中国，中药由国家中医药管理局管理。中医及其发展是有规律的。国家战略、法律和中医药法规已经到位，以指导和促进这一有前途的行业的研究和发展。<br />
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4. In China, TCM is under the administration of State Administration of TCM and Pharmacology. TCM and its development are regulated. National strategies, law and regulations governing TCM are now in place to guide and promote the research and development in this promising industry.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:33, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, TCM( Traditional Chinese Medicine ) is under the administration of State Administration of TCM and Pharmacology. TCM and its development have their own rules. National strategies, law and regulations all have been in place to guide and promote the research and development in this promising industry--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:34, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本医学、韩国韩医学、朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was born in primitive society, basically during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period. In addition, it has exerted profound influence on the countries of the Chinese character culture circle, and Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, and Vietnamese medicine are all developed on the basis of Chinese medicine.<br />
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中医药事业是我国医药卫生事业的重要组成部分。国家大力发展中医药事业，实行中西医并重的方针，建立符合中医药特点的管理制度，充分发挥中医药在我国医药卫生事业中的作用。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine plays an important role in China's medical and health services. China has vigorously developed traditional Chinese medicine, implemented the policy of equal emphasis on Chinese and Western medicine to establish management system that is in accordance with the characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine, giving full play to the role of traditional Chinese medicine in medical and health services.<br />
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针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段。它是一种“内病外治”的医术。是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗全身疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique method of curing patients in China, which focuses on kind of "treatment of internal disease and external treatment". Through the conduction of meridians and acupoints, as well as the application of certain manipulation methods, it treats systemic diseases.<br />
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李时珍念《本草》一书历代注解者谬误亦多，遂考古证今，辨疑订误，广采博收群书，在宋代唐慎微《经史证类备急本草》基础上编成《本草纲目》。<br />
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Li Shizhen read the book "The Herbal Medicine of Shennong" , and recognized that there are many mistakes in the commentator. By wildly searching and reading the ancient books, he solved doubts, corrected errors, and eventually compiled the "Compendium of Materia Medica" on the basis of Tang Shenwei in Song Dynasty ".--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 00:18, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
1.中医是基于阴和阳的一套传统医疗体系，包括针灸治疗以及以动物和植物为来源的一系列药物治疗。<br />
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Chinese medicine refers to a traditional system of medical treatment based on the principles of Yin and Yang, involving such treatments as acupuncture and the use of a range of drugs derived from animal and vegetable sources.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.仅仅50毫克的咖啡因就能产生药理效果。<br />
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As little as 50 mg of caffeine can produce pharmacological effects.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸是针法和灸法的总称，是东方医学的重要组成部分，有着悠久的历史。 人们利用金属针具或艾炷、艾卷，在人体特定的部位进针施灸，用以治疗疾病，解除病痛，并由此创立了独具特色的人体经络腧穴理论，在形成、应用和发展的过程中，具有鲜明的中华民族文化与地域特征。针灸于2006年经国务院列入第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录。<br />
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Acupuncture is a general term for acupuncture and moxibustion. It is an important and long-standing part of eastern medicine. People employ metal needles, moxa cones and moxa rolls on specific parts of human body to cure diseases and relieve ailments, and thus established the unique theory of meridians and acupoints, which has distinct Chinese cultural and regional characteristics in the process of formation, application and development. And acupuncture and moxibustion was listed in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage by The State Council in 2006.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中医药反映了中华民族对生命、健康和疾病的认识，具有悠久的历史传统和独特的理论及技术方法，凝聚着中国人民和中华民族的博大智慧。<br />
Chinese medicine reflects the Chinese nation's understanding of life, health and disease. It has a long history and tradition, unique theories and technical methods, embodying the broad wisdom of the Chinese people and nation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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1. 天山雪莲生长于天山山脉海拔4000米左右的悬崖陡壁之上、冰渍岩缝之中；那里气候奇寒、终年积雪不化，一般植物根本无法生存，而雪莲却能在零下几十度的严寒中和空气稀薄的缺氧环境中傲霜斗雪、顽强生长。这种独有的生存习性和独特的生长环境使其天然而稀有，并造就了它独特的药理作用和神奇的药用价值，人们奉雪莲为“百草之王”、“药中极品”。<br />
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Saussurea involucrata grows on the steep cliffs and ice crevices at an altitude of about 4,000 meters in Tianshan Mountains. There, the climate is extremely cold and snow does not melt all the year round, where ordinary plants can't survive at all, while Saussurea involucrata can grow tenaciously in the cold of tens of degrees below zero and the oxygen-deficient environment. This unique living habit and unique growing environment make it natural and rare, thus bestowing it with unique pharmacological and medicinal value. People regard Saussurea involucrata as "the king of herbs" and "the best medicine".--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 党参为中国常用的传统补益药，古代以山西上党地区出产的党参为上品.党参有增强免疫力、扩张血管、降压、改善微循环、增强造血功能等作用。此外对化疗放疗引起的白细胞下降有提升作用。<br />
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Codonopsis pilosula is a traditional tonic commonly used in China. In ancient times, Codonopsis pilosula produced in Shangdang area of Shanxi Province was the top grade. Codonopsis pilosula has the functions of enhancing immunity, dilating blood vessels, lowering blood pressure, improving microcirculation and enhancing hematopoietic function. In addition, it can improve the leukopenia caused by chemotherapy and radiotherapy.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 艾灸对人体局部的温热刺激，能增强局部血液循环和淋巴循环，皮肤组织的代谢能力也会得到加强，炎症、粘连、渗出物、血肿等病理产物同时能得到很好的消散。<br />
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Moxibustion can enhance local blood circulation and lymphatic circulation, enhance metabolism of skin tissue, and dissipate pathological products such as inflammation, adhesion, exudate and hematoma.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moxibustion can bring local warmth of the human body, which can enhance local blood circulation and lymphatic circulation, and the metabolism of skin tissues will be improved. Pathological products such as inflammation, adhesions, exudates, hematoma, etc. can also be well alleviated. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:33, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 饺子起源于东汉时期，为东汉河南邓州人张仲景首创。当时饺子是药用，张仲景用面皮包上一些祛寒的药材用来治病(羊肉、胡椒等)，避免病人耳朵上生冻疮。<br />
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Dumplings originated in the Eastern Han Dynasty and were initiated by Zhang Zhongjing, a native of Dengzhou, Henan Province in the Eastern Han Dynasty. At that time, dumplings were used for medicinal purposes. Zhang Zhongjing wrapped some cold-dispelling medicinal materials in his dough to treat diseases (mutton, pepper, etc.), so as to avoid frostbite on his ears.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dumplings originated in the Eastern Han Dynasty and were first created by Zhang Zhongjing, a native of Dengzhou, Henan Province. At that time, dumplings were used for medicinal purposes. Zhang Zhongjing wrapped some cold-dispelling medicinal materials in dough to treat diseases (mutton, pepper, etc.) to prevent frostbite on the ears of patients. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:33, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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1.说起中医文化，不得不从中华文化说起，我们 知道中华文明已有上下五千年的沉淀，五千年虽然经历了风风雨雨，但其主线却从未动摇！<br />
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We know that Chinese civilization has been in existence for 5,000 years, and although it has experienced ups and downs in the past 5,000 years, its main thread has never wavered!<br />
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2.中医针灸在2010年入选"非遗"名录,是历史性的一刻,也是中医针灸走向世界的重要举措。中医针灸至今为止已有5 000多年历史,为中华民族健康事业做出了巨大的贡献。<br />
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The inclusion of TCM and acupuncture in the "Non-heritage" list in 2010 is a historic moment and an important step for TCM and acupuncture to go global. TCM acupuncture has a history of over 5,000 years and has made great contributions to the health of the Chinese people.<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 19:08, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.中医诊断学，是历代医家临床诊病经验的积累，它的理论和方法起源很早。公元前五世纪著名医家扁鹊就以“切脉、望色、听声、写（犹审）形”等为人诊病。<br />
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TCM diagnostics is the accumulation of clinical experience of medical practitioners over the ages, and its theories and methods originated very early. In the fifth century B.C., magpie, a famous doctor, diagnosed people's illnesses by "cutting the pulse, looking at colors, listening to sounds and writing (Judgment)".<br />
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4.张仲景的著述除《伤寒杂病论》外，还有《辨伤寒》十卷、《评病药方》一卷、《疗妇人方》二卷、《五藏论》一卷、《口齿论》一卷，可惜都早已散失不存。然而仅此一部《伤寒杂病论》的杰出贡献，也足以使张仲景成为海内外景仰的世界医学伟人。<br />
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In addition to the Treatise on Miscellaneous Diseases of Typhoid Fever, Zhang Zhongjing's writings included ten volumes of the Treatise on the Identification of Typhoid Fever, one volume of the Treatise on Medical Formulas, two volumes of the Treatise on the Treatment of Women, one volume of the Treatise on Five Treasures, and one volume of the Treatise on Mouth and Teeth, all of which, unfortunately, have long been lost. However, the outstanding contribution of the "Treatise on Miscellaneous Diseases of Typhoid Fever" alone was enough to make Zhang Zhongjing a great medical figure admired at home and abroad.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 19:17, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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1、有些人认为中药越贵越补，常不惜花高价买鹿茸、人参之类的中药，其实进补功效未必就好。“缺什么，补什么”是进补的基本原则，中药不应以售价的贵贱来分功效的高低，关键是根据自身体质来选择相应补品。<br />
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Some people think that the more expensive traditional Chinese medicine is, the more healthy it is. They are often willing to pay a high price for traditional Chinese medicine such as deer antler and ginseng, but the effect of tonic is not necessarily good. The basic principle of tonic is "fill what you lack". Traditional Chinese medicine should not be graded according to its high or low price. The key is to choose the corresponding tonic according to your physical condition.<br />
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2、滑脉脉象跳动有力，因为怀孕后孕妇体内的血流量比平常增加20%以上，因此脉搏的跳动会比普通人的有力，这是最明显的区别，因此怀孕的脉象通常是滑脉。<br />
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The strong beating pulse is the most obvious difference because the blood flow in a pregnant woman's body increases by more than 20% compared to normal, so the pulse will beat more forcefully than that of an average person.<br />
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3、针灸疗法的特点是治病不靠吃药，只是在病人身体的一定部位用针刺入，达到刺潋神经并引起局部反应，或用火的温热刺激烧灼局部，以达到治病的目的。前一种称作针法，后一种称作灸法，统称针灸疗法。<br />
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The characteristic of acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is that it does not rely on medicine to cure the disease, but only pricks the patient with needles in certain parts of the body to prick the nerves and cause local reaction, or burns the local area with the warm stimulation of fire to achieve the purpose of curing the disease. The first one is called acupuncture, and the second one is called moxibustion, collectively known as acupuncture therapy.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 15:29, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1.中药就是指在中医理论指导下，用于预防、治疗、诊断疾病并具有康复与保健作用的物质。中药主要来源于天然药及其加工品，包括植物药、动物药、矿物药及部分化学、生物制品类药物。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) refers to the substances used in the prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases under the guidance of TCM theory, and has the function of rehabilitation and health care. Traditional Chinese medicine mainly comes from natural medicine and its processed products, including plant medicine, animal medicine, mineral medicine and some chemical and biological products. --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:07, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) refers to the substances used in the prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases under the guidance of TCM theory, and has the function of rehabilitation and health care. Traditional Chinese medicine mainly comes from crude drug and its processed products, including plant medicine, animal medicine, mineral medicine and some chemical and biological medicine.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段。是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion is a unique method of treating diseases in China，which is through the conduction of meridians and acupoints, as well as the application of certain operation, to treat diseases.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:07, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion is a unique method of treating diseases in China，which is through the conduction of meridians and acupoints, as well as the application of certain operations.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique method of treating diseases in China，which cures diseases through the conduction of meridians and acupoints, as well as the application of certain operation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.中医诊断学是在中医基础理论指导下，研究如何诊察病情、辨别病证一门学科。<br />
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Under the guidance of the basic theory of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnostics of traditional Chinese medicine is a basic theory of how to diagnose and identify diseases and syndromes.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:07, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Under the guidance of the basic theory of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnostics of traditional Chinese medicine is a discipline of studying how to diagnose and identify diseases and syndromes.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.扁鹊是一位能兼治各科疾病的多面手，扁鹊还能根据当地的需要，开展医疗活动。据记载，扁鹊还精于外科手术，而且应用了药物麻醉来进行手术。<br />
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Bian Que is a versatile person who can treat all kinds of diseases. He can carry out medical activities according to local needs. According to records, Bian Que is also good at surgery, and used drug anesthesia to carry out surgery.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:07, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Bian Que was a versatile doctor who can cure various diseases. He carried out medical activities according to local needs. According to the records, Bian Que was also good at surgery, and used drug anesthesia to take surgery.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
1. 中医可能不像西医那样有完整的、逻辑性很强的理论，有些方面要凭经验。中医的治疗手段建立在对病人全身的功能性分析基础上，应用药物和其他治疗手段来激发身体的自愈功能。在当今社会，在保持中医传统优势的基础上，使其规范化、科学化，必将促进现代中医的发展。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine, having no integrated and logical theory like that of western medicine, relies heavily on experience. TCM treatments are based on functional analysis of the patient’s entire body, and leverage the body’s self-healing abilities along with drugs and other medications. Today, on the basis of the traditional predomination, standardization of combination of TCM and Western medicine in recipe construction of TCM might promote the modernization of it. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:05, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 药理学是研究药物与机体间相互作用规律及其药物作用机制的一门科学，主要包括药效动力和药代动力两个方面。近年来逐渐发展而设立起来的临床药理学是以临床病人为研究和服务对象的应用科学，其任务是将药理学基本理论转化为临床用药技术。<br />
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Pharmacology is a science that studies the law of interaction between drugs and the body and the mechanism of drug effects, mainly including pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Clinical pharmacology, which has witnessed development in recent years, is an applied science that serves clinical patients. Its task is to transform the basic theories of pharmacology into clinical medication technology. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:05, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 针灸是一种有效的能够替代药物治疗抑郁症、吸毒、酗酒、吸烟和暴饮暴食以及其他成瘾行为的疗法。<br />
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Acupuncture is an effective alternative to drugs for the treatment of depression, drug and alcohol addiction, and other addictive behaviors such as smoking and overeating. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:05, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 中医是以阴阳五行学说为其基本理论，更注重人与自然界的关系，有着独特的理念和诊病治病方法。中医是我国优秀的民族文化遗产，它记录着中国人民几千年来同疾病作斗争的丰富经验和理论知识。<br />
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Based on the theory of Ying-yang and Five Elements, Chinese medicine pays more attention to the relationship between human and nature. It has unique concepts and methods of diagnosis and treatment. Chinese medicine is an excellent national cultural heritage in China. It records the rich experience and theoretical knowledge of the Chinese people in fighting against diseases for thousands of years. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:05, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.新冠肺炎疫情中，中医药在救治工作中发挥了更加重要、更为广泛的作用。强化中西医结合、中医深度介入诊疗过程，成为医疗救治的鲜明特点，中医药在全国各地新冠肺炎防治中的价值被极大地肯定。 <br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine has played a more important and more extensive role in the treatment of COVID-19.Medical treatment is characterized distinctively by the emphasis on the comnbination of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine and in-depth involvement of traditional Chinese medicine in the process of diagnosis and treatment.The value of traditional Chinese medicine in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 has been widely recognized.<br />
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2.人们生活水平的提高要求更多更好的新药，药物科学的发展为新药开发提供了理论基础和技术条件，市场经济竞争也促进了新药快速发展。<br />
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People demand more better new drugs because of the improvement of living standards.The development of pharmaceutical science provides theoretical basis and technical conditions for the development of new drugs and the competition in the market economy also promotes the rapid development of new drugs.<br />
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The improvement of people's living standard requires more and better new drugs, the development of drug science provides the theoretical basis and technical conditions for the development of new drugs, and the market economy competition also promotes the rapid development of new drugs.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.中国有句老话叫“吃水不忘挖井人”，在记住我们的祖先发明了针灸术、创造了中华民族的健康和昌盛的同时，还应记住诸多为针灸西进而做过贡献的中外医生和科学家、社会活动家和患者们，同时也不要忘记美国记者罗斯顿和他30年前发表在纽约时报上的《北京之行》。<br />
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There is an old saying in China which goes "When you drink water,think of those who dug the well."While we bear in mind that our ancestors invented acupuncture and moxibustion and created the health and prosperity of the Chinese nation,we should also keep in mind so many Chinese and foreign doctors,scientists,social activists and patients who have contributed to the westward spread of acupuncture and moxibustion,and the American journalist Reston and his article ''The Trip To Beijing'' published in the New York Times 30 yeas ago.<br />
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4.《伤寒杂病论》奠定了张仲景在中医史上的重要地位，并且随着时间的推移，这部专著的科学价值越来越显露出来，成为后世从医者人人必读的重要医籍。<br />
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''On Typhoid and Other Diseases'' has built up Zhang Zhongjing's important position in the history of traditional Chinese medicine.As time goes by,its scientific value becomes increasingly apparent and it has been a significant book that every medical practitioner in later generations should read.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 00:56, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
1、中药剂量是指临床应用时的分量。它主要指明了每味药的成人一日量。中药绝大多数来源于生药，安全剂量幅度较大，用量不像化学药品那样严格，但用量得当与否，也是直接影响药效的发挥、临床效果好坏的重要因素之一。<br />
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The herbal dose is the amount of the medicine to be used clinically. It mainly indicates the adult daily dose of each medicine. The vast majority of Chinese medicines are derived from raw materials, and the safe dosage range is large, the dosage is not as strict as that of chemicals, but the proper dosage is also one of the important factors that directly affect the efficacy and clinical results.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:33, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、药理学是基础医学与临床医学，医学与药学之间的桥梁学科。在药理学科学的理论指导下进行临床实践，在实验研究的基础上丰富药理学理论。药物的研究和应用除了要尊重科学规律，还要依照法律、法规和相关指导原则的规定，以保障人们的生命健康。<br />
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Pharmacology is a discipline that bridges the gap between basic medicine and clinical medicine, between medicine and pharmacy. Clinical practice is guided by the scientific theories of pharmacology, and the theories of pharmacology are enriched on the basis of experimental research. The research and application of drugs should not only respect scientific laws, but also comply with laws, regulations and relevant guidelines to protect people's life and health.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:33, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、当前减肥方法很多，但针灸减肥有独特的疗效，即安全方便，又无不良反应。针灸减肥不同于药物减肥等，药物作用通常有一定的期限，而针灸减肥是通过调整患者内在功能而发挥内因作用，所以一般不会在针灸减肥治疗停止后很快又发胖。也就是说，针灸减肥一般不反弹。<br />
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There are many current weight loss methods, but acupuncture has a unique therapeutic effect that is safe, convenient and without adverse reactions. Acupuncture is different from drugs in that the effects of drugs usually have a certain time limit, but acupuncture plays an internal role by adjusting the patient's internal function, so the patient usually does not gain weight again soon after acupuncture treatment stops. In other words, acupuncture for weight loss generally does not bounce back.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:33, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、中医药作为我国独特的卫生资源、潜力巨大的经济资源、具有原创优势的科技资源、优秀的文化资源和重要的生态资源，在经济社会发展中发挥着日益重要的作用。认真贯彻落实党中央、国务院发展中医药的方针政策，推进中医药振兴发展，更好地为建设健康中国服务，为全面建成小康社会服务。<br />
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As China's unique health resources, economic resources with great potential, scientific and technological resources with original advantages, excellent cultural resources and important ecological resources, Chinese medicine is playing an increasingly important role in economic and social development. We will conscientiously implement the guidelines and policies of the Central Committee of the Party and the State Council on the development of Chinese medicine, promote the revitalization and development of Chinese medicine, and better serve the building of a healthy China and the building of a well-off society in an all-round way.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:33, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
1. 目前，国家药监局与国家中医药管理局紧密携手，正在加快清肺排毒汤等有效抗疫方药成果转化，开启中药经典名方由“方”到“药”的新路径。<br />
The SFDA is working hand in hand with the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine to advance the transformation of anti-epidemic prescriptions, such as Lung Clearing Soup, to make a breakthrough from "prescription" to "medicine" in classical Chinese medicine prescriptions.<br />
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2.问诊应有目的地重点探问，围绕患者主诉，突出的主要症状、体征，深入查询其特点，及可能发生的兼症，了解病情发展及诊治经过，以提高判断的准确性。<br />
Diagnosis require doctors inquiring with certain purpose, focusing on the main complaint of the patient from the main symptoms and signs, in-depth research of its characteristics, possible complications to the development of the disease and the history of diagnosis and treatment to improve the accuracy of diagnosis.<br />
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3.拔火罐既然是一种专业的治疗手段，拔火罐当然并不简单，如果不管三七二十一就自行在家拔火罐，容易造成危险，生活中并不乏拔火罐时出现意外的事件。如果乱施穴道，有时还会适得其反。<br />
Moxibustion, as a professional treatment, is far from easy. If you do it at home without guidance, danger will be around the corner. There is no lack of accidents from that in life. If acupuncture points are used indiscriminately, sometimes it will backfire.<br />
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4.随着17—18世纪我国西学东渐速度的加快，西方医药输入日益增多。由于中西药之间有明显的差异，为便于区分，人们逐渐把中国传统药物称为“中药”。<br />
With the acceleration of Western Learning from the 17th to the 18th centuries in China, the import of western medicine increased gradually. Given the obvious differences between Chinese and Western medicines, people gradually refer to traditional Chinese medicines as "Chinese medicines" for discrimination.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 受传统中医疗法的启发，1969年，在中国军方的一个项目中，屠呦呦发现了青蒿素，这种药物现在是治疗疟疾的主要药物。她说，这一荣誉“表明中医药已经引起了国际学术界的关注”。<br />
Inspired by a classical traditional Chinese medicinal treatment, Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin, a drug that’s now the primary treatment against malaria, during a project for the Chinese military in 1969. She said the honor “shows that traditional Chinese medicine has drawn the attention of the international academia”.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:25, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 对于吃野生动物肉类容易染上疾病这件事，早在四五百年前的明代就已经被著名的医学家李时珍详细记载于《本草纲目》之中。<br />
As early as four or five hundred years ago in the Ming Dynasty, the famous medical scientist Li Shizhen has recorded the fact that people eating meat from wild animals are prone to develop diseases in the Compendium of Materia Medica in detail.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:25, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 针灸起源于2000多年前的中国。从本质上说，它的作用是改善生命能量的顺畅流动，也就是中国人所说的“气”，从身体的主要器官到皮肤、肌肉、肌腱、骨骼和关节等身体组织。<br />
Acupuncture originated in China more than 2,000 years ago. Essentially, it functions by improving the smooth flow of life force energy, known in Chinese as qi, from the body's primary organs to body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:25, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 三国的时候，曹操常常头痛剧烈，寝食难安。于是就请来了神医华佗为他医治。华佗对曹操说，要想根治此病，除非抛开头颅，做一个手术。<br />
During the Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao often had severe headaches and could not sleep well. So he invited hua Tuo, an outstanding doctor, to treat him. He told Cao Cao that the only way to cure the disease was to open his brain and perform an operation. --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:25, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Three Kingdoms period,Cao Cao often suffer severe headaches making him have trouble sleeping and eating.So he invited hua Tuo, an outstanding doctor, to treat him. He told Cao Cao that the only way to cure the disease was to open his brain and perform an operation.-[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:37, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
1.中药剂量是指临床应用时的分量。它主要指明了每味药的成人一日量。中药绝大多数来源于生药，安全剂量幅度较大，用量不像化学药品那样严格，但用量得当与否，也是直接影响药效的发挥、临床效果好坏的重要因素之一。<br />
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The dosage of traditional Chinese medicine refers to the amount of clinical application. It mainly indicates the adult daily dose of each medicine. The vast majority of traditional Chinese medicine comes from crude drugs, the safe dose range is larger, the dosage is not as strict as chemical drugs, but the dosage is appropriate or not, is also one of the important factors that directly affect the efficacy and clinical effect.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.导致误诊的原因很多，医生责任心不强、病史采集不全、不细心体检、不适当解释和评价检查结果、不密切观察病情等均可引起误诊。其中以病史采集不全引起者最为多见。<br />
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There are many reasons for misdiagnosis, such as doctors' weak sense of responsibility, incomplete collection of medical history, careless physical examination, improper interpretation and evaluation of examination results, and lack of close observation of the disease, etc. Among them, incomplete history collection is the most common cause.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸疗法是祖国医学遗产的一部分，也是我国特有的一种民族医疗方法。千百年来，对保卫健康，繁衍民族，有过卓越的贡献，直到如今，仍然担当着这个任务，为广大群众所信赖。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is a part of the medical heritage of the motherland, and also a unique national medical method in China. For thousands of years, he has made outstanding contributions to the protection of health and the reproduction of the nation. Up to now, he still undertakes this task and is trusted by the masses.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中国医药学具有数千年的悠久历史，它是中国人民长期以来与疾病作斗争的智慧结晶，是我们优秀民族文化遗产中的一颗璀灿明珠。千百年来，中国医药学为中华民族的繁衍昌盛和促进世界医学的发展作出了卓越的贡献。 <br />
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Chinese medicine has a long history of thousands of years. It is the wisdom of the Chinese people to fight against diseases for a long time. It is also a shining pearl in our excellent national cultural heritage. For thousands of years, Chinese medicine has made outstanding contributions to the prosperity of the Chinese nation and the development of world medicine.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.中药指在中医理论指导下，用于预防、治疗、诊断疾病并具有康复与保健作用的物质。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine refers to the substance used in prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases under the guidance of traditional Chinese medicine theory, and possesses the function of recovery and health care.<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine refers to the substance used in prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases under the guidance of traditional Chinese medicine theory, and possesses the function of healing and health care.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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2.脉象的产生与心脏的波动，心气的盛衰，脉道的通利和和气血的盈亏直接相关。<br />
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The condition of pulse is directly related to the fluctuation of heart, the rise and fall of heart-qi, the degree of patency and the quantity of Qi and blood.<br />
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The condition of pulse is directly related to the fluctuation of heart, the rise and fall of heart-qi, the patency of veins and the balance of Qi and blood.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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3.灸法以预制的灸炷或灸草在体表一定的穴位上烧灼、熏熨，利用热的刺激来预防和治疗疾病。<br />
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Moxibustion utilizes prefabricated moxibustion stick or moxibustion grass to cauterize and fumigate certain acupoints on the body surface to prevent and treat diseases by hot stimulation.<br />
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Moxibustion utilizes prefabricated moxibustion stick or moxibustion grass to cauterize and fumigate certain acupoints on the body surface to prevent and treat diseases by heat stimulation.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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4.华佗医术全面，尤其擅长外科，精于手术。并精通内、妇、儿、针灸各科。<br />
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Hua Tuo mastered comprehensive medical skills, especially good at surgery and proficient in operation, internal medicine, gynecology, pediatrics, acupuncture and moxibustion.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:08, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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1.中医重“德”的作用，所谓德，就是能够正确履行自己职责的一种品质。在传统中国哲学中，四季变化是天的德，生养万物是地的德。中医认为，如果一种生命不能正确发挥自己的职能，就可能导致疾病发生。<br />
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The traditional Chinese medicine emphasizes the “virtue”, which is the quality of being able to fulfill one’s duties. In the Chinese traditional philosophy, the virtue of heaven is to perform the changing of seasons while the virtue of earth is to grow all the living things. According to traditional Chinese medicine, if a living thing fails to perform duties, diseases may occur.<br />
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2.中药毒性有广义狭义之分，有别于现代药物毒性概念，同时，中药有严格的毒性分级和使用禁忌。“是药三分毒”，在中医理论指导下合理用药是问题关键，加强中药安全性评价研究是保证中药安全有效的基础。<br />
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The toxicity of traditional Chinese medicine has its broad sense and narrow sense, which is different from the concept of medicine toxicity in modern times. Meanwhile, there are strict classifications of toxicity and contraindications to prescribe the medicine. All medicine have certain toxicity. Therefore, to prescribe medicine directed by the theory of traditional Chinese medicine is the key to the problem, and to strengthen the research on safety evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine is the basis to ensure the safety and effectiveness of that.<br />
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3.我国古代医家早就认识到预防疾病的重要性，并提出了“防病于未然”的学术思想，而艾灸除了有治疗作用外，还有预防疾病和保健的作用，这在古代文献中有很多记载。<br />
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Chinese ancient doctors have long recognized the importance of disease prevention, and put forward the academic thought of "preventing disease before it happens". Moxibustion is not only a therapeutic method, but also helpful in disease prevention and health care, which was recorded in many ancient documents.<br />
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4.在西医未传入中国之前，我们的祖祖辈辈都用中医中药来治疗疾病，挽救了无数人的生命。中医对疾病的治疗是宏观的、全面的。但是到了现代，随着西方自然科学和哲学的进入，西方医学的思维方式和研究方法构成了对中医学的挑战。<br />
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Before the introduction of Western medicine into China, traditional Chinese medicine was used by our ancestors to treat diseases and saved countless lives. Traditional Chinese medication is a macro and comprehensive method. However, in modern times, along with the introduction of the western natural science and philosophy, the mode of thinking and research method are brought into China, thereby causing a threat to traditional Chinese medicine science. --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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1.中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本医学、韩国韩医学、朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was born in primitive society. The theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine has basically taken shape during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period. In addition, it has far-reaching influence on the countries of the Chinese character culture circle, such as Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, and Vietnamese medicine are all developed on the basis of Chinese medicine.<br />
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2.在我国丰富的医药学遗产中，有一部闻名中外的药物大辞典——《本草纲目》。它是我国明代杰出的医药学家和药物学家李时珍用了毕生精力，总结前人和群众的经验，加上自己辛勤的劳动实践，才写成的。<br />
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Among the rich medical heritage in our country, there is a well-known dictionary of medicines at home and abroad-"Compendium of Materia Medica". It was written by Li Shizhen, an outstanding medical scientist and pharmacologist in the Ming Dynasty in my country, who spent his entire life, summing up the experience of predecessors and the masses, and his own hard work practice.<br />
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3.针法是指在中医理论的指导下把针具（通常指毫针）按照一定的角度刺入患者体内，运用捻转与提插等针刺手法来对人体特定部位进行刺激从而达到治疗疾病的目的。刺入点称为人体腧穴，简称穴位。根据最新针灸学教材统计，人体共有361个正经穴位。<br />
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Acupuncture refers to piercing a needle (usually a filiform needle) into the patient's body at a certain angle under the guidance of Chinese medicine theory, and using acupuncture techniques such as twisting and lifting to stimulate specific parts of the human body to achieve the purpose of curing diseases . The point of penetration is called acupoint of the human body, or acupoint for short. According to the latest statistics of acupuncture and moxibustion textbooks, there are 361 serious meridian points in the human body.<br />
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4.《黄帝内经》奠定了人体生理、病理、诊断以及治疗的认识基础，是中国影响极大的一部医学著作，被称为医之始祖。<br />
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"The Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic" laid the foundation for the understanding of human physiology, pathology, diagnosis and treatment. It is a medical work with great influence in China and is known as the ancestor of medicine.--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 04:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-中医（TCM）是一种广泛的医学实践，它们具有2000多年的传统，并在中国已发展出一些共同的概念，包括各种形式的草药，针灸，推拿，运动（气功）和饮食疗法。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a broad range of medicine practices sharing common concepts which have been developed in China and are based on a tradition of more than 2,000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage (tui na), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy.<br />
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2-传统中药中常用的草药包括：黄芪,银杏叶,红色酵母米,肉桂,生姜,参,Gotu可乐,曹玉兴。<br />
Herbs commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine include:Astragalus, Ginkgo biloba,Red yeast rice.Cinnamon.Ginger.Ginseng.Gotu kola.Yu Xing Cao.<br />
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传统中药中常用的草药包括：黄芪,银杏叶,红曲米,肉桂,生姜,人参,雷公根,鱼腥草。<br />
Herbs commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine include:Astragalus, Ginkgo biloba,Red yeast rice,Cinnamon,Ginger,Ginseng,Gotu kola and Yu Xing Cao.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:40, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-针灸是中药的重要组成部分。<br />
Acupuncture and moxibustion are important components of Chinese traditional medicine.<br />
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4-中国拥有世界上最古老的医疗系统之一。针灸和中药疗法至少可以追溯到2200年，尽管最早的中药书面记录是公元前3世纪的黄帝内经。<br />
China has one of the world's oldest medical systems. Acupuncture and Chinese herbal remedies date back at least 2,200 years, although the earliest known written record of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi neijing (The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic) from the 3rd century BC.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 13:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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China has one of the world's oldest medical systems. Acupuncture and Chinese herbal remedies date back at least 2,200 years, although the earliest known written record of Chinese medicine is The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic (Huangdi Neijing)from the 3rd century BC.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:35, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
1.传统中医已有2000多年的历史，在中医中阴主要指机体的物质方面，阳则指机能，中医通过实践来改善其思想观念。<br />
Traditional Chinese medicine has a long history over 2000 years.In TCM, Yin refers largely to the material aspect of the organism and Yang to functions.Traditional Chinese medicine improve their ideas and views through practice.<br />
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2.一位中医观察患者的面部表情，呼吸，咳嗽，肤色并感觉到自己的脉搏。 一个好的医生可以区分20多种脉冲。<br />
A Chinese physician observes patient's facial expression, breathing, cough,skin colour and feels his pulse. A good doctor can distinguish more than 20 types of pulse.<br />
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3.在汉代，司马迁在《史记》中记录了针灸史学家的成功。<br />
In Han Dynasty, a historian success with acupuncture and moxibustion is recorded in Records of the Historian by Sima Qian.<br />
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4.边是司马迁《史记》中的著名医生。 他在医学和五个感觉器官方面非常熟练。<br />
Bian Que was a famous doctor in Sima Qian's Records of the Historian. He was very skilled in medicine and five sense organs.<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本医学、韩国韩医学、朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
Chinese medicine was born in primitive society. Its theory was basically formed in the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States Period, and has been summarized and developed in successive dynasties. In addition, it has a profound influence on countries in the cultural circle of Chinese characters. For example, Japanese medicine, South Korean medicine, North Korean medicine, and Eastern Vietnamese medicine are all developed on the basis of Chinese medicine.<br />
2、在长期的医疗实践活动中，历代医家积累了丰富的临床诊断经验，形成了中国特有的完整的诊病体系，即四诊(望、闻、问、切)、辨证与辨病。<br />
In the long period of medical practice, doctors of all dynasties have accumulated rich experience in clinical diagnosis and formed a complete diagnostic system unique to China, namely, four diagnostic methods (observing, listening and smelling, inquiring, and palpating), syndrome differentiation and disease differentiation.<br />
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3、艾灸，是用艾叶制成的艾条，艾柱，产生的艾热刺激人体穴位或特定部位，通过激发经气的活动来调整人体紊乱的生理生化功能，从而达到防病治病目的的一种治疗方法。<br />
Moxibustion is a treatment method that uses mugwort leaves to stimulate the acupuncture points or specific parts of the human body and adjust the physiological and biochemical functions of the human body by stimulating the activity of channels and collaterals, so as to achieve the purpose of disease prevention and treatment.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:31, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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1. Traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology embodies a great many valuable ideas. <br />
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中医和药理学蕴含着许多宝贵的思想.<br />
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2. In traditional Chinese medicine, doctors use four basic diagnostic methods: observing, listening and smelling, inquiring, and palpating.<br />
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在中医中，医生使用四种基本的诊断方法：观察，听和闻，询问和触诊。<br />
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3. Acupuncture and moxibustion are important components of Chinese traditional medicine.<br />
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针灸是中药的重要组成部分。<br />
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4. Preventive medicine, so highly acclaimed by people today, has always been stressed in traditional Chinese medicine.<br />
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预防医学在当今中医界中一直受到人们的高度赞扬，一直受到人们的高度重视。--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 04:44, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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1 Chinese medicinal refers to the medicines applied under the guidance of traditional Chinese medicine theory. It is mainly composed of medicines from plants, animals, and minerals. Because most of the medicines are plants, traditional Chinese medicine is also known as “herbal medicine’’<br />
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2 Reading of the electric acupuncture are large and they coincide with indications of traditional acupuncture can also treat.<br />
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3 More than a thousand years ago, Chine medicine had already spread into and interacted with the medical culture in Asia, Europe and even appreciate by world health Organization. Chinese medicine is developing too fast and very efficient.<br />
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1中药是指在中医理论指导下应用的药物. 它主要由植物，动物和矿物质制成. 由于大多数药物都是植物，因此中药也被称为“草药”.<br />
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2 电针的阅读量很大，它们与传统针灸的适应症吻合，也可以治疗.<br />
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3一千多年前，中国医学已经在亚洲，欧洲传播并与医学文化互动，甚至受到世界卫生组织的赞赏。 中药发展太快而且效率很高.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 13:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.中药熬制时长应该根据药材的性质以及患者的病情来决定，没有固定的最佳时间。一幅中药一般煎两次比较好，不宜多次煎煮。<br />
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The decocting time of traditional Chinese medicine should be determined by the nature of the medicinal material and the condition of patients. There is no fixed optimal time. A piece of Traditional Chinese medicine generally decocted twice is better, should not be decocted for many times.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 10:19, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.药理学的学科任务是要为阐明药物作用及作用机制、改善药物质量、提高药物疗效、防治不良反应提供理论依据；研究开发新药、发现药物新用途并为探索细胞生理生化及病理过程提供实验资料。<br />
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The mission of pharmacology is to provide a theoretical basis for elucidating the effects and mechanisms of drugs, improving drug quality, enhancing drug efficacy, and preventing adverse reactions; to research and develop new drugs, discover new uses for drugs, and provide experimental data for exploring cellular physiological, biochemical, and pathological processes.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 10:19, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.艾灸历史源远流长，纵观艾灸的发展，可分为两个里程，第一个是传统艾灸，第二个是现代艾灸，不论是传统艾灸还是现代艾灸都有各自的特点、优势和不足之处。<br />
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Moxibustion has a long history. Throughout the development of moxibustion, it can be divided into two milestones, the first is traditional moxibustion, the second is modern moxibustion, both of them have their own characteristics, advantages and deficiencies.<br />
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4.中草药的使用从可以追溯到几千年前，是我们中华民族的宝贵财富。现在西医的发展，西药和抗生素的使用，由西方传来，引起了人们对中药的热议，近些年对于中草药的使用和发展，依然存在着一些问题和争议。<br />
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The use of Chinese herbal medicine dates back thousands of years and is a valuable asset of our Chinese nation. Nowadays, the development of Western medicine, the use of Western drugs and antibiotics, which came from the West, has caused a lot of discussion on Chinese medicine, and in recent years, there are still some problems and controversies regarding the use and development of Chinese herbs.----<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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1.我国劳动人民几千年来在与疾病作斗争的过程中，通过实践逐渐积累了丰富的医药知识。由于太古时期文字未兴，这些知识只能依靠师承口授，后来有了文字，便逐渐记录下来，中药出现了医药书籍。这些书籍起到了总结前人经验并便于流传和推广的作用。<br />
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In struggling with diseases for the past thousands of years, Chinese working people have accumulated rich medical knowledge through practice. In the immemorial time when words were not invented, these knowledge can only be inherited from teachers and be taught through oral languages. They were recorded after the invention of words, which were medicine books. These books summarize experience the forefathers to help its circulation and promotion.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:42, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.疾病是一个由发生到缓解的连续过程。在作诊断时，病人往往处于疾病的某一阶段，医生只能根据当时掌握的资料，经分析推理，得出诊断。这个诊断是否切合病的总体情况，还需要在临床实践中，通过进一步观察病情演变、继续收集资料以及客观地观察治疗反应来验看。<br />
Disease is a serial process from its onset to remission. At the time of diagnosis, the patient is often at a certain stage of the disease and physician can only make a diagnosis based on the information available through analysis and reasoning. Whether the diagnosis fits in with the overall condition needs to be examined through further observation of the evolution of the disease, continued data collection and objective observation of the response to treatment in clinical practice.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:42, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.由于针灸疗法具有独特的优势，有广泛的适应性，疗效迅速显著，操作方法简便易行，医疗费用经济，极少副作用，远在唐代，中国针灸就如今传播到日本、朝鲜、印度、阿拉伯等国家，繁衍出具有异域特色的针灸医学。到如今为止，针灸已经传播世界140多个国家和地区，为保障全人类的生命健康发挥了巨大的作用。<br />
Due to the unique its strengths including wide applicability, rapid effectiveness, easy operational approach, a small amount of medical expenses and few side effects, it was spread to countries such as Japan, the North Korea, India and Arab. And they developed acupuncture with their own characteristics. Until now, it has been spread to over 140 countries and regions and played a great role in securing health of all human kind.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:42, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.当今，电子商务已经进入市场。预计在不久的将来，作为医学咨询或医疗、预防等辅助手段，电子医疗和网上医院一定会走向社会，走入市场。但必须强调一句，无论科学怎样发达，电子医疗、远程会诊都不能代替最基本的医生与患者面对面的诊疗。<br />
Nowadays, e-business has entered the market. Supposedly, e-medicare and online hospital which act as auxiliary approaches and boast functions of medical consultation, medicare and prevention will enter the market. But it is necessary to emphasize that e-medicare and long-distance consultation will not replace face-to-face diagnosis between doctors and patients no matter how advanced technology is.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:42, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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1. 所谓道地药材，又称地道药材，是优质纯真药材的专用名词，它是指历史悠久、产地适宜、品种优良、产量宏丰、炮制考究、疗效突出、带有地域特点的药材。如甘肃的当归，宁夏的枸杞，青海的大黄，内蒙的黄芪，东北的人参、细辛、五味子，山西的党参，河南的地黄、牛膝、山药、菊花等。<br />
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The so-called authentic medicinal materials, also known as authentic medicinal materials, is a term for high-quality pure medicinal materials. It refers to medicinal materials with a long history, suitable production area, excellent variety, great output, sophisticated processing, outstanding curative effect, and regional characteristics. Such as Angelica from Gansu, Chinese wolfberry from Ningxia, Rhubarb from Qinghai, Astragalus from Inner Mongolia, Ginseng, Asarum, Schisandra from Northeast, Codonopsis from Shanxi, Rehmannia, Achyranthes, Chinese yam, Chrysanthemum, etc.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:34, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 望诊，是对病人的神、色、形、态、舌象等进行有目的的观察，以测知内脏病变，中医通过大量的医疗实践，逐渐认识到机体外部，特别是面部、舌质，舌苔与脏腑的关系非常密切。<br />
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Inspection is a purposeful observation of the patient’s look, color, shape, state, tongue, etc. to detect visceral lesions. Through a large number of medical practices, Chinese medicine gradually recognizes the outside of the body, especially the face and tongue. The tongue coating has a very close relationship with the viscera.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:34, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 针灸疗法的特点是治病不靠吃药，只是在病人身体的一定部位用针刺入，达到刺潋神经并引起局部反应，或用火的温热刺激烧灼局部，以达到治病的目的。前一种称作针法，后一种称作灸法，统称针灸疗法。<br />
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The characteristic of acupuncture therapy is that it does not rely on taking medicine to cure the disease, but only punctures a certain part of the patient's body with a needle to pierce the nerve and cause a local reaction, or use the warm heat of fire to stimulate the local area to achieve the purpose of curing the disease. The former is called acupuncture, and the latter is called moxibustion, collectively referred to as acupuncture therapy.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:34, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 新中国成立后特别是改革开放以来，党中央、国务院高度重视中医药工作，制定了一系列政策措施，推动中医药事业发展取得了显著成就。中医药总体规模不断扩大，发展水平和服务能力逐步提高，初步形成了医疗、保健、科研、教育、产业、文化整体发展新格局，对经济社会发展贡献度明显提升。<br />
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After the founding of New China, especially since the reform and opening up, the Party Central Committee and the State Council have attached great importance to the work of Chinese medicine, formulated a series of policies and measures, and made notable achievements in promoting the development of Chinese medicine. The overall scale of traditional Chinese medicine has continued to expand, and the level of development and service capabilities have gradually improved. A new pattern for the overall development of medical care, health care, scientific research, education, industry, and culture has initially formed, and its contribution to economic and social development has increased significantly.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:34, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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1中医是中华文化不可分割的一部分。在定义上，中医是指导中国传统医药理论和实践的一种医学，它包括中医疗法、中草药、针灸、推拿和气功。中医为振兴华夏做出了巨大的贡献。如今，中医和西医在中国的医疗保健领域并驾齐驱。中医以其独特的诊断手法、系统的治疗方式和丰富的典籍材料，备受世界而瞩目。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine(TCM) is an integral part of Chinese culture. It is defined as a medical science governing the traditional Chinese medical theory and practice, and it includes Chinese therapies, herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage and Qigong. TCM has made great contributions to the prosperity of China, and today both western medicine and TCM are being used in providing medical and health services in China. TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, systematic treatment, abundant historical literature and materials, has attracted a lot of attention from the international community.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:16, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.针灸是中医学的重要组成部分。按照中医的经络理论，针灸疗法主要是通过疏通经络，调和气血，来达到阴阳平衡，脏腑调和之目的。其特点是“内病外治”。主要疗法是用针刺入病人身体的一定穴位，或用艾火的温热刺激烧灼病人的穴位，以达到刺激经络，治疗病痛的目的。<br />
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Acupuncture is an important part of traditional Chinese medicine(TCM). In accordance with the “main and collateral channels” theory in TCM, the purpose of acupuncture is to dredge the channel and regulate qi and blood, so as to keep the body’s yin and yang balanced and achieve reconciliation between the internal organs. It features in traditional Chinese medicine that “internal diseases are to be treated with external therapy”. The main therapy of acupuncture involves using needles to pierce certain acupoints of the patient’s body, or adopting moxibustion to stimulate the patient’s acupoints so as to stimulate the channels and relieve pain.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:16, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.中药主要由植物药(根、茎、叶、果)、动物药(内脏、皮、骨、器官)和矿物药组成。因以植物药为主，故也称中草药。中药的应用理论独特，认为中药有四气五味。“四气”指的是药性的“寒热温凉”，“五味”指的是药物的“辛酸甘苦咸”。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine mainly consists of plant medicine(roots,stems,leaves,fruits), animal medicine(viscera,skins,bones,organs), and mineral medicine. Chinese herbal medicine is based on plant medicine. According to the unique application theory of traditional Chinese medicine, it is believed that it contains “four natures and flavors.” “Four matures” refers to the properties of “coldness, heat, mildness, and coolness,” while “five flavors” refers to the properties of being “pungent, sour, sweet,bitter and salty”.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:16, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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1.余知百病生于气也。怒则气上，喜则气缓，悲则气消，恐则气下，惊则气乱，思则气结。<br />
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I know that many diseases are caused by imbalance of Qi. Anger leads to upward-surging Qi, joy smoother Qi, sadness Qi depression, fear downward-flowing Qi, frightening Qi disorder and meditation Qi stagnation.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.望而知之者，望见其五色，以知其病。望诊中的五色。按照五行学说，青属木属肝，黄属土属脾，赤属火属心，白属金属肺，黑属水属肾。<br />
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An excellent doctor can get to know the disease by observing his or her Wuse (According to the theory of five elements, Green relates to the liver, Yellow the spleen, Red the heart, White the lung, and Black the kidney.)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.人于无病时，常灸关元、气海、命门……虽未得长生，亦可得百余岁矣。<br />
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When there is no disease, people often acupuncture their Guanyuan, Qihai, Mingmen. In this way, they can live to be over 100 years old even if unable to be immortal.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.太阳之为病，脉浮，头项强痛而恶寒。<br />
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Problems in Taiyang Meridian result in a floating pulse, strong pain on the head and aversion to cold.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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1.中药在我国古代被称为“本草”。“本草”一词，沿用已有两千多年之久。一指中国传统医药学中的药物，二指中国传统药物学及药物学专著，如《本草纲目》。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was called "Materia Medica" in ancient China,which has been used for more than 2000 years. On the one hand，it refers to the drugs in traditional Chinese medicine;on the the other hand,it refers to Chinese traditional pharmacology and pharmacology monographs, such as Compendium of Materia Medica.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.诊断内容可以是实体性疾病或某种生理状态，也可以是综合征。有时是某主要症状、体征或检查结果。完整的临床诊断应包括病因、病理形态和病理生理方面的内容。诊断就其内容的含义还可分为描述性和实体性两大类。<br />
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The diagnosis can range from a solid disease or a physical condition to a syndrome. Sometimes it is a major symptom, sign, or test result. A complete clinical diagnosis should include the etiological, morphological, and pathophysiological aspects of the disease. Diagnoses can also be classified as descriptive or substantive in terms of the meaning of their content.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸由“针”和“灸”构成，是东方医学的重要组成部分之一，其内容包括针灸理论、腧穴、针灸技术以及相关器具，在形成、应用和发展的过程中，具有鲜明的中华民族文化与地域特征，是基于中华民族文化和科学传统产生的宝贵遗产。<br />
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Acupuncture ,which consists of "needles" and "moxibustion", is one of the important components of Oriental medicine. It includes acupuncture theory, acupoints, acupuncture techniques and related instruments. In the process of its formation, application and development, acupuncture boasts distinctive Chinese cultural and regional characteristics,which is a valuable heritage based on the cultural and scientific traditions of the Chinese nation.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.综观中药学发展历史，我们可以看到，它的发展轨迹基本上遵循着由简单到复杂，由低级到高级的规律发展，并与社会各个时期的政治、经济、科学、文化密切相关，是系统的、科学的实践经验的总结，是一个伟大的宝库。<br />
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Throughout the development history of traditional Chinese medicine, we can see that its development track basically follows the law from simple to complex, from low to high end, and closely related to politics, economy, science and culture in various periods of society. It is a systematic and scientific summary of practical experience and a great treasure house. --[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
Traditional Chinese medicine carries the experience and theoretical knowledge of ancient Chinese people in fighting against diseases. It is a medical theoretical system gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectics.<br />
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2. 医学科学的任务是防治疾病，益寿延年，而诊断学对人体生命活动状态和疾病的认识，则是防治疾病、预防早衰的基础。对病证正确的诊断是有效防治的前提，中医诊断学是根据中医学基本理论，专门研究如何诊察病证临床表现、确定病证诊断、分析病证变化及其演变规律的一门科学。<br />
The task of medical science is to prevent and cure diseases and prolong life, while the recognition of human life activity state and disease in diagnostics is the basis of disease prevention and premature aging prevention. The correct diagnosis of disease and syndrome is the premise of effective prevention and treatment. According to the basic theory of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnostics of traditional Chinese medicine is a science that studies how to examine the clinical manifestations of diseases and syndromes, determine the diagnosis of diseases and syndromes, and analyze the changes and evolution laws of diseases and syndromes.<br />
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3. 针灸疗法是祖国医学遗产的一部分，也是我国特有的一种民族医疗方法。千百年来，对保卫健康，繁衍民族，有过卓越的贡献，直到如今，仍然担当着这个任务，为广大群众所信赖。<br />
Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is a part of the medical heritage of the motherland, and also a unique national medical method in China. For thousands of years, he has made outstanding contributions to the protection of health and the reproduction of the nation. Up to now, he still undertakes this task and is trusted by the masses.<br />
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4. 在文化大革命期间，中医作为“古为今用”的医学实例得到中国共产党政策上的支持而得以发展。现代，中医在中国仍然是治疗疾病的常用手段之一。<br />
During the cultural revolution, traditional Chinese medicine, as a medical example of making the past serve the present, was developed with the support of the Communist Party of China. In modern times, traditional Chinese medicine is still one of the commonly used means to treat diseases in China.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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1.汤剂是中药最为常用的剂型之一。汤剂的制作对煎具、用水、火候、煮法都有一定的要求。煎药用具以砂锅、瓦罐为好，搪瓷罐次之，忌用铜铁锅，以免发生化学变化，影响疗效。<br />
Decoction is one of the most commonly used dosage forms of Chinese medicine. The preparation of decoction has certain requirements for decoction, water, heat, and cooking methods. The decocting utensils are preferably casserole and earthenware pots, followed by enamel pots. Avoid using copper and iron pots to avoid chemical changes and affect the efficacy.<br />
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2.药理学是研究药物与机体间相互作用规律及其药物作用机制的一门科学，主要包括药效动力学和药代动力学两个方面。前者是阐明药物对机体的作用和作用原理,后者阐明药物在体内吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄等过程,及药物效应和血药浓度随时间消长的规律。<br />
Pharmacology is a science that studies the law of interaction between drugs and the body and the mechanism of drug action, including pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former is to clarify the role and principle of the drug on the body, the latter clarifies the process of drug absorption, distribution, biotransformation and excretion in the body, and the law of drug effects and blood drug concentration with time.<br />
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3.针灸由“针”和“灸”构成，是东方医学的重要组成部分之一，其内容包括针灸理论、腧穴、针灸技术以及相关器具，在形成、应用和发展的过程中，具有鲜明的中华民族文化与地域特征，是基于中华民族文化和科学传统产生的宝贵遗产。<br />
Acupuncture is composed of "needles" and "moxibustion". It is one of the important components of Oriental medicine. Its content includes acupuncture theory, acupoints, acupuncture techniques and related appliances. In the process of formation, application and development, it has a distinctive Chinese nation Cultural and regional characteristics are precious heritage based on the Chinese nation’s cultural and scientific traditions.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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1.自古以来，中医药就是古丝绸之路沿线国家交流合作的重要内容，伴随早期的商贸活动在沿线国家落地生根，以不同形态成为沿线民众共享共建的卫生资源。<br />
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Since ancient time， Chinese medicine has been the essential part of exchanges and cooperation among countries along the ancient Silk Route. With the early commercial activities taking root in these countries, TCM has become a health resource jointly shared and built by the people along the Silk Road in different forms. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since ancient time， Chinese medicine has been an integrated part to exchanges and cooperation among countries along the ancient Silk Route. With the early commercial activities taking root in these countries, TCM has become a health resource jointly shared and built by the people along the Silk Road in different forms.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.医学科学的任务是防治疾病，益寿延年，而诊断学对人体生命活动状态和疾病的认识，则是防治疾病、预防早衰的基础。<br />
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The task of medical science is to prevent and cure diseases and prolong life, while diagnosis, studying activities and diseases of human life, is the basis of preventing and curing diseases and preventing premature senility.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Medical science aims to prevent and cure diseases as well as to prolong longevity, while Diagnosis, studying activities and diseases of human body, is the basis of preventing and curing diseases and preventing premature senility.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:17, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The task of medical science is to prevent and cure people's diseases and prolong life, while diagnosis, studying activities and diseases of human life, is the basis of preventing and curing diseases and preventing premature senility.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.灸法是有着上千年历史的中医外治法,其疗效已经被历朝历代无数医家临床实践所证实。随着艾灸疗法临床范围的不断扩大，对其治病机理的探究也在进一步深入。<br />
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Moxibustion is an external treatment of traditional Chinese medicine with a history of thousands of years. Its curative effect has been proved by clinical practices of countless doctors in successive dynasties. With the continuous expansion of the clinical scope of moxibustion therapy, the research on the mechanism of its treatment is further deepened. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moxibustion is an external treatment of traditional Chinese medicine with a history of thousands of years, whose curative effect has been proved by clinical practices of countless doctors in successive dynasties. With the relentless expansion of the clinical scope of moxibustion therapy, the research on the mechanism of its treatment is further deepened.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.随着政府相关部门对中医药全产业链监管政策法规的日趋完善，中药材的质量将有大幅提升，生产工艺的不断优化和物流条件的改善使得中成药和中药饮片的质量也将随之迈上一个新台阶，中药疗效将愈加有保障。<br />
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With the improvement of the regulatory policies and regulations of relevant government and departments on the whole traditional Chinese medicine industry chain, the quality of TCM material will have a dramatic improvement. The continuous optimization of production technology and the improvement of logistics conditions will make the quality of TCM proprietary drugs and TCM prepared slices step up to a new level. In addition, the efficacy of TCM will be more and more guaranteed. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the gradual improvement of the regulatory policies and regulations of relevant government and departments on the whole traditional Chinese medicine industry chain, the quality of TCM material will have a dramatic improvement. The continuous optimization of production technology and the improvement of logistics conditions will make the quality of TCM proprietary drugs and TCM prepared slices step up to a new level. In addition, the efficacy of TCM will be more and more guaranteed.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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1.传统中医理论描述了特殊的穴位，或指穴位，它们位于体内的经脉上。据信，在人体内的经脉（这些经脉并不真实存在）里流动着一股能量——一种叫做“气”的生命力。<br />
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1.Traditional Chinese medical theory describes special acupoints, or acupressure points, that lie along meridians, or channels, in your body. It is believed that through these invisible channels flows vital energy -- or a life force called qi (ch'i).<br />
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2.太阳穴在耳廓前面，前额两侧，外眼角延长线的上方。太阳穴在中医经络学上被称为“经外奇穴”，也是最早被各家武术拳谱列为要害部位的“死穴”之一。<br />
2.Temple is in front of the auricle, both sides of the forehead and above the extension line of the outer corner of the eye. Temple in traditional Chinese medicine is known as "the magic point outside meridian ", and is also among the earliest one being considered as "killing point" by many martial arts books.<br />
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3.百会(GV20)是督脉(主脉)的重要穴位之一，常用于神经病学和精神病学，百会穴位于头部，前发际正中直上5寸。针灸和中医常通过按摩百会穴来“清觉”和“镇定精神”。<br />
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3.Baihui (GV20) is one of the most important points of the Du meridian (the government vessel) and is commonly used in neurology and psychiatry。It is located in the head, 5 inches perpendicular to the center of the front hairline. In the practice of acupuncture and Chinese Medicine, Bai Hui is used generally to “clear the senses” and “calm the Spirit.”<br />
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4.风池穴是人体的穴位，在头额后面大筋的两旁与耳垂平行处，所属经络为足少阳胆经。按摩风池穴可以缓解目眩、 目昏、目痛等。<br />
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4.Fengchi is an point of human body that is parallel to the earlobe on both sides of the tendon behind the forehead, and belongs to the meridian of foot shaoyang gallbladder. Massaging the fengchi point can help relieve your dizziness, ease the pain of your eyes and so on .--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 13:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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1.我国劳动人民几千年来在与疾病作斗争的过程中，通过实践，不断认识，逐渐积累了丰富的医药知识。由于太古时期文字未兴，这些知识只能依靠师承口授，后来有了文字，便逐渐记录下来， 中药出现了医药书籍。<br />
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1.In the course of fighting against diseases for thousands of years, the working people of our country have gradually accumulated a wealth of medical knowledge through practice and continuous understanding.Due to the lack of literature in the Archaic period, these knowledge could only be taught orally by teachers. Later, when words were written, they were gradually recorded, and Chinese medicine books appeared.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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1. In the course of fighting against diseases for thousands of years, the working people of China have gradually accumulated rich medical knowledge through continuous practices and understanding. As the lack of written language in the Archaic period, these knowledge could only be handed down by teaching orally. Later, these knowlege were recorded since the appearencce of characters. Then there were Chinese medicine books.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 11:49, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.药理学的方法是实验性的，即在严格控制的条件下观察药物对机体或其组成部分的作用规律并分析其客观作用原理。<br />
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2.The method of pharmacology is experimental, that is to observe the law of action of drugs on the body or its components under the condition of strict control and analyze its objective principle of action.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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The method of pharmacology is experimental：to observe the law of action of drugs on the body or its components under the condition of strict control and analyze its objective principle of action.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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3.针灸疗法的特点是治病不靠吃药，只是在病人身体的一定部位用针刺入，达到刺潋神经并引起局部反应，或用火的温热刺激烧灼局部，以达到治病的目的。前一种称作针法，后一种称作灸法，统称针灸疗法。<br />
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3.The characteristic of acupuncture therapy is that it does not rely on taking medicine to cure the disease. It only pierces a certain part of the patient's body with a needle to pierce the nerve and cause a local reaction, or use the warm heat of fire to stimulate the local area to achieve the purpose of curing the disease. The former is called acupuncture, and the latter is called moxibustion, collectively referred to as acupuncture moxibustion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.中国医药学已有数千年的历史，是我国人民长期同疾病作斗争的极为丰富的经验总结，对于中华民族的繁荣昌盛有着巨大的贡献。由于药物中草类占大多数，所以记载药物的书籍便称为“本草”。<br />
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4.Chinese medicine has a history of thousands of years. It is a summary of the extremely rich experience of our people in the long-term struggle against diseases, and has made a huge contribution to the prosperity of the Chinese nation. Since herbs account for the majority of medicines, books that record medicines are called "Materia Medica".--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.以人名命药名：有些中药的用名带有传说色彩，这些药多半是以发现者或最初使用者的名字来做药名。<br />
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Naming after people:The names of some medicines are legendary. The names of these medicines are mostly based on the name of the discoverer or original user of the medicine.<br />
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Naming the medicine after a person’s name :The names of some medicines are legendary. The names of these medicines are mostly based on the names of the discoverers or original users of the medicine.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:55, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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Naming after people:The names of some medicines are legendary and most of them use the name of the discoverers or original users of the medicine.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.问诊内容涉及范围很广，是获取疾病信息的重要途径，很多名老中医非常重视问候，问诊包括问一般情况，问生活史，问家族病史和既往病史，问起病，问现在症。<br />
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The inquiring covers a wide range of topics which is an important way to obtain information about the disease, and many famous TCM physicians attach great importance to it, including inquiring about the general information, life history, family and past medical history, onset of illness, and present symptoms.<br />
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3.灸法是以预制的灸炷或灸草在体表一定的穴位上烧灼、熏熨，利用热的刺激来预防和治疗疾病。通常以艾草最为常用，故而称为艾灸，另有隔药灸、柳条灸、灯芯灸、桑枝灸等方法。如今人们生活中也经常用到的多是艾条灸。<br />
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Moxibustion is the use of ignited preprepared moxa cones or grass to heat over the points of skin or certain locations in the human body by using heat to prevent and treat disease. The most common use of moxibustion is usually moxahood thus named moxibustion,and there are also many different equipment and materials being used,such as moxibustion through herbs, wicker moxibustion, wicker moxibustion, and mulberry moxibustion.Nowadays, moxibustion is very popular used in people's lives.<br />
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4.新中国成立以后，对中医药事业高度重视，先后制定了许多有利于中药发展的措施，中医药的教育、科研事业也有了空前的发展。<br />
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After the founding of People's Repulic of China, it has attached great importance to TCM, and has formulated many conducive measures to the development of TCM, thus the education and scientific research of TCM have also achieved unprecedented development<br />
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Since the founding of People's Republic of China, great attention has been paid to Traditional Chinese Medicine(TCM) that a lot of measures benificial to its development have been implemented and great progress has been made in the education and scientific research of TCM.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:17, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.中药就是指在中医理论指导下，用于预防、治疗、诊断疾病并具有康复与保健作用的物质。<br />
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Under the guidance of the theory, traditional Chinese medicine is used for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases and has the function of rehabilitation and health care.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:09, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine refers to the substances used in the prevention, treatment and diagnosis of diseases under the guidance of TCM theory, and has the function of rehabilitation and health care.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.中医药方是传统中医文化的智慧结晶和组成部分。可以说，如果没有那些神奇灵妙的药方，中医必将黯淡无光，奇迹也将无从谈起。<br />
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Chinese medicine prescription is the crystallization and essential component of TCM culture. It can be said that without those magic ones, Chinese medicine will lose its luster, let alone any miracles.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:09, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine prescription is the wisdom crystallization and component of TCM culture. It can be said that without those miraculous ones, traditional Chinese medicine will be dim, let alone any miracles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸以通经脉，调气血，使阴阳归于相对平衡，脏腑功能趋于调和，从而达到防疾病的目的。<br />
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By connectting the meridians,regulating qi and blood,Acupuncture and moxibustion break a balance between Yin and Yang,and harmonize the functions of viscera, so as to prevent diseases.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:09, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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By connectting the meridians,regulating qi and blood,Acupuncture and moxibustion bring a relative balance between Yin and Yang,and harmonize the functions of viscera, so as to prevent diseases.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中医学以阴阳五行作为理论基础，将人体看成是气、形、神的统一体，通过“望闻问切”四诊合参的方法，探求病因、病性、病位。<br />
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Based on the Yin and Yang theory and the theory of five elements, TCM regards the human body as the unity of qi, form and spirit, and explores the etiology, pathogenesis and location of diseases through the method of "observing the overall way the patient looks, listening to the voice and observing any odor, asking questions, and feeling the patient’s pulse".--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:09, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the theory of Yin, Yang and five elements, TCM regards the human body as the unity of Qi, form and spirit, and explores the etiology, nature and location of the disease through the method of "look, listen, ask and feel the pules".--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.中药绝大多数来源于生药，安全剂量幅度较大，用量不像化学药品那样严格，但用量得当与否，也是直接影响药效的发挥、临床效果好坏的重要因素之一。<br />
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The vast majority of Chinese medicines are made of raw materials, which allows a high safe dosage. They are not so strict as chemicals in terms of dosage but whether it is appropriate or not will directly affects the drug efficacy and clinical results.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia <br />
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2.传统的中医诊法包括望、闻、问、切四诊，主要依靠医生的视觉、触觉、听觉、嗅觉等感觉器官收集病情资料，但依据人体五官收集的资料，其分辨率低、信息量少，难以合参；模糊性大，有很大的主观性，且量化与客观化不足，缺少定性与定量结合的综合分析。<br />
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Traditional diagnostic methods include looking, listening, asking and pulse feeling, which mainly rely on the doctor's senses such as sight, touch, hearing, and smell to collect information about the patient's condition. Such information is rough, vague and subjective, and it is difficult to be quantified, so there is a lack of comprehensive analysis using qualitative and quantitative methods.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.出针时医生应先以左手拇、食指按住针孔周围皮肤，右手持针作轻微捻转，慢慢将针提至皮下，然后将针起出，用消毒干棉球揉按针孔，以防出血。<br />
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When withdrawing the needle, the doctor should first press the skin around the needle hole with the left thumb and index finger, then twist the needle slightly with the right hand and slowly lift the needle to the subendothelial layer, then draw the needle out and press the needle hole with a sterile dry cotton ball to prevent bleeding.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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4.清朝末年，中国受西方列强侵略，国运衰弱。同时现代医学（西医）大量涌入，严重冲击了中医发展。中国出现许多人士主张医学现代化，中医学受到巨大的挑战。<br />
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At the end of the Qing Dynasty, China was invaded by Western powers, and then went through a difficult time. At the same period, the modern medicine was brought into China, which severely impacted the development of traditional Chinese medicine. Voices of advocating medical modernization emerged in China, and position of the Chinese medicine was greatly challenged.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
1. 东汉末年，社会动荡，民不聊生，人祸导致疫灾，成千上万贫民百姓死于以伤寒病为代表的疾病和瘟疫。一个叫张机的河南人，面对处于水深火热之中的百姓，痛下决心要悬壶济世，造福一方。<br />
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At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, social unrest and discontent led to epidemics, with tens of thousands of poor people dying from diseases and epidemics such as typhoid fever. In the face of the people stranded in this plight, Zhang Ji, a man in Henan province, was determined to practise medicine to help and benefit the people.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 古人很早就注意到，由于体力活动、精神、饮食之干扰，都能使脉象出现一时性变化，如疾行、剧动后脉弦数有力，愤怒后脉多弦大，饮酒之后洪大弦滑，食后右脉浮滑等。以上所述系诊脉理想时间，但非指其它时间不能诊脉。<br />
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The ancients had long noted that physical activity, mental and dietary disturbances could cause temporary changes in the pulse, such as a stronger and tenser pulse after walking fast and vigorously, a wirier and larger pulse after anger, a louder and more slippery pulse after drinking alcohol, and a more superficial and slippery right pulse after eating. The above mentioned times are ideal for diagnosing the pulse, but they do not mean that the pulse cannot be diagnosed at other times.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 现代研究表明，以艾灸治疗气滞血瘀所致的疼痛性疾病具有较好的疗效，从中医的角度来理解，就是艾灸的温通效应。主要用于各种痛症、以肿胀为特点的疾病（如腹胀）及各种气滞所导致的病症（如气滞所致的便秘）等。临床可局部灸、循经灸、对症灸。<br />
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Modern research has shown that moxibustion is effective in treating painful conditions caused by Qi stagnation and blood stasis, which in Chinese medicine is the warming effect of moxibustion. It is mainly used for a variety of painful conditions, diseases characterised by swelling (e.g. abdominal distension) and various conditions caused by Qi stagnation (e.g. constipation due to Qi stagnation). Clinical moxibustion can be applied topically, via the meridians or symptomatically.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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4. 对一些地方在中小学尝试“识百草”、加强中医药文化教育的做法，专家们表示肯定。安徽中医药大学校长王键说，中医药传承更为根本的是要“从娃娃抓起”，中医药知识要写进中小学课本，为中医药的传承创造良好的社会土壤和环境。<br />
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The experts commented favourably that some places have tried to promote "learning about all kinds of herbs" in primary and secondary schools and strengthen the education of TCM culture. Wang Jian, president of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, said that it is more fundamental to grasp the heritage of TCM from childhood, and that knowledge of TCM should be written into primary and secondary school textbooks to create a good social soil and environment for the inheriting of TCM.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
1. “中药”一词在不同的历史时期存在不同的内涵，随着中医药理论实践的发展，其内涵不断得以丰富，形式不断得到拓展。<br />
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1. The term “traditional Chinese medicine” has different connotations in different historical periods, and with the development of Chinese medicine theory and practice, its connotations are constantly enriched and its forms are constantly expanded.<br />
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1. The term “traditional Chinese medicine” has different connotations in different historical periods. With the development of Chinese medicine theory and practice, its connotations are constantly enriched and its forms are constantly expanded.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 对于人体疾病的诊断过程是一个认识过程，认识的目的在于进一步指导实践。而望、闻、问、切四诊，是认证识病的主要方法。<br />
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2. The process of diagnosing is about understanding, aiming to further guide practice. The four diagnostic methods of looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse are the main methods to know about the disease. <br />
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3. 针灸的原理是刺激能量中心以达到治疗效果。人体的本质是一个能量体，经络是能量网格。<br />
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3.The principle of acupuncture is to stimulate the energy center to achieve a therapeutic effect. The nature of the human body is an energy body, and the meridians are energy grids. <br />
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4. 早在几千年前的远古时代，我们的祖先在日常饮食劳作和与大自然的抗争中就积累了一些用药知识。<br />
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4. Thousands of years ago, in ancient times, our ancestors accumulated some knowledge of medicine in their daily life and struggle with nature.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:12, 2 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Ancestors in ancient times accumulated some knowledge of medical and pharmacy in their daily life and in the fight with nature.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:38, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1. 如今，随着对中药资源的开发和研究，许多民间药物也归入中药的范畴。所以，中药是以中医理论为基础，用于防治疾病的植物，动物矿物及其加工品，不论产于中国，外国均称中药。 Nowadays, with the development and research of Chinese medicine resources, many folk medicines are also included in the category of Chinese medicine. Therefore, Chinese medicine is based on the theory of Chinese medicine. Plants, animal minerals and processed products used to prevent and treat diseases are called Chinese medicine regardless of whether they are produced in China or abroad.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 四诊的基本原理是建立在整体观念和恒动观念的基础上的，是阴阳五行、藏象经络、病因病机等基础理论的具体运用。The basic principles of the Four Diagnoses are based on the overall concept and the concept of perpetual movement, and are the specific application of basic theories such as Yin-Yang and Five Elements, Zangxiang Meridian, etiology and pathogenesis.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 艾叶实际上是一种中药，而且具有着非常大的作用，能够宣理气血、除湿开郁。艾叶针灸的方法是通过安火的温热刺激，达到治疗的作用。Mugwort is actually a kind of traditional Chinese medicine, and it has a very great effect, which can regulate qi and blood, remove dampness and relieve depression. The method of acupuncture and moxibustion of mugwort is to achieve the therapeutic effect through the warm stimulation of Anhuo.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 清代医家张志聪说过：“不明四书者不可以为儒，不明本论（《伤寒论》）者不可以为医。”后该书流传海外，亦颇受国外医学界推崇，成为研读的重要典籍。 Zhang Zhicong, a physician in the Qing Dynasty, said: “Those who do not understand the Four Books cannot be Confucianism, and those who do not understand the original theory ("Treatise on Febrile Diseases") cannot be medical." Later, the book spread overseas and was highly praised by foreign medical circles and became an important study.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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1.中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
Traditional Chinese medicine bears the experience and theoretical knowledge of the ancient Chinese people's struggle against disease . It is a medical theory system gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectics.<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine carries the experience and theoretical knowledge of the ancient Chinese people's struggle against disease . It is a medical theory system gradually shaped and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectics.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.食疗与药疗是相对而言的，只是食物的作用缓，和，副作用小;药物的作用显著，副作用大。因此，食疗应该是日常生活中比较方便的既廉价，方便又健康的。<br />
Dietotherapy and drug therapy are relative, but the effect of food is slow, and, side effects are small ;The action of the medicine shows off, the side effect is big.Therefore, dietotherapy should be more convenient in daily life both cheap, convenient and healthy.<br />
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Dietotherapy and drug therapy are relative, but the effect of food is slow and side effects are minor while the effect of the medicine is remarkable and the side effects are major. Therefore, dietotherapy is more convenient in daily life, cheap, convenient and healthy.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:49, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经络是运行全身气血，联络脏腑肢节，沟通上下内外的通路。经，有路径的意思，是经络系统的主干;络，有网络的意思，是经脉的分支，纵横交错，网络全身。<br />
The channels and collaterals are the way to run the whole body qi and blood, connect the viscera and limbs, and communicate the upper and lower internal and external.Classics, has the meaning of the path, is the main trunk of the meridian system ;Collateral, have network meaning, is the branch of meridian, crisscross, network whole body.<br />
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4.中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本医学、韩国韩医学、朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
Chinese medicine was born in primitive society, the theory of Chinese medicine in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period has been basically formed, and has been summarized and developed throughout the ages.Besides, it has a profound influence on the countries of Chinese cultural circle, such as Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, Korean medicine, East Vietnamese medicine and so on.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:08, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) was born in primitive society. TCM theory was basically formed in the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States Period, and has been summarized and developed in successive dynasties. In addition, it has a far-reaching impact on the countries in the Chinese character cultural circle, such as Japanese medicine, Korean medicine, North Korean medicine, Korean medicine, and East Vietnam medicine, which are all developed on the basis of TCM. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:27, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、中医师中华文化不可分割的一部分，为中华的繁荣昌盛做出了极大的贡献。中医，以其独特的诊断手法、悠久的历史和显著的疗效被用来医治各种癌症和重大疾病。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine is an indispensable part of Chinese culture. The TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, long history and remarkable effects, have been used to treat cancer and other serious diseases.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine is an indispensable part of Chinese culture. The TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, long history and remarkable effects, has been used to treat cancer and other serious diseases.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:02, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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2、望、闻、问、切是中医的四诊。望诊，是对病人的神、色、形、态、舌象等进行有目的的观察，以测知脏病变，中医通过大量的医疗实践，逐渐认识到机体外部，特别是面部、舌质，舌苔与脏腑的关系非常密切。<br />
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Looking, smelling, asking, and cutting are the four diagnoses of Chinese medicine. Inspection is the purposeful observation of the patient’s look, color, shape, state, tongue, etc. to detect visceral lesions. Through a large number of medical practices, Chinese medicine gradually recognizes that the outside of the body, especially the face, tonguet and tongue coating has a very close relationship with the viscera.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、灸法是以艾绒作为主要原料，制成艾炷或艾条，或将艾绒置于特制的容器中，点燃后，在体表一定的穴位上熏灼、温熨，借助灸火的温和热力的刺激，并通过经络的传导，腧穴的功用，起到温通经络，行气活血，扶正祛邪的作用，从而达到治疗疾病和防病保健目的的一种疗法。<br />
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Moxibution is a therapy which treats and prevents diseases by means of moxa wool, the main material in the therapy inthe forms of moxa cones or sticks. The combustion of the moxa wool permits transmission of heat to points or certain locations of human body. With the heat, the points and meridians would be stimulated so that the purpose of warning the meridians and collaterals, invigorating the flow of Qi and blood, strengthening the body resistance and eliminating pathogens from the body is achieved.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、中医产生于原始社会，春秋战国中医理论已经基本形成，出现了解剖和医学分科，已经采用“四诊”。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine was born in primitive society. The theory of Chinese medicine in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period has basically taken shape. Anatomy and medical divisions have appeared, and the "four diagnosis" has been adopted.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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1. 中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。Traditional Chinese medicine carries the experience and theoretical knowledge of the Chinese people in fighting against diseases. It is a medical theory system that has been gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient simple materialism and spontaneous dialectics. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 病史采集和体格检查是医生的基本功，而正是这项基本技能却随着临床检查仪器和设备的不断更新，正被越来越多的医生所轻视，“望、闻、问、切”正逐渐成为医学历史的痕迹。<br />
Medical record and physical examination are regarded as basic skills of medical workers. But now more and more doctors despise these basic skills as clinical equipments are renewed continually. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 有人质疑针灸的效用极其微弱不足以创建临床关系，认为显示针灸有效果的研究结论可能是安慰剂效应、不完全双盲实验或发表偏倚的结果。<br />
Some people questioned that the effectiveness of acupuncture is extremely weak and insufficient to create a clinical relationship. They believe that the conclusions of studies showing the effectiveness of acupuncture may be the result of placebo effects, incomplete double-blind experiments, or publication bias. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 中医上的理物论主要体现在" 人禀天地之气而生" 、" 形与神俱，不可分离" 与" 疾病可知，又可防治" 这些观点中。<br />
In TCM, materialism means that the existence of human beings depends on the interaction between the celestial qi and terrestrial qi. The spirit and the body are inseparable. Diseases are cognizable and curable. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚== <br />
1. 中医学在长期的发展过程中，逐渐形成了一整套医学原则和观点。中医认为“万物人为贵”，将救死扶伤作为职业道德规范<br />
During its long process of development , TCM has gradually developed a complete set of medical principles and concepts. It believes that “nothing is more important than a human life.” It regards healing the sick and rescuing the dying as its professional ethics.<br />
2.中医注重无病防病，强调以食补来延缓衰老，减少疾病<br />
TCM pays attention to the prevention of diseases, advocating the food treatment approach to defer senility and reduce diseases. <br />
3.中医理论认为，社会环境与自然环境相互作用，相互依存，人的身心也是一种相互作用，互为依存的关系<br />
According to TCM theory, the relationship between the social environment and natural environment, as well as relationship between the human body and spirits is of mutual influence and independence --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
1.中医中药在中国古老的大地上已经运用了几千年的历史，经过几千年的临床实践，证实了中国的中医中药无论是在治病上、在防病上，还是在养生上，都是确凿有效可行的。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine has been applied for thousands of years in the ancient land of China. After thousands of years of clinical practice, it has been proved that Traditional Chinese medicine is effective and feasible in treating and preventing disease and maintaining health.<br />
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2.中药药理学是以中医基本理论为指导，用药理学的方法研究中药对机体各种功能的影响及其作用原理的科学。重点研究与中医理论有关的现代科学研究中药的成果，通过研究和实验了解中药药理研究的概貌。<br />
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Chinese medicine pharmacology is the science of studying the effects of Chinese medicine on various functions of the body and the principles of action by means of pharmacology under the guidance of the basic theories of Chinese medicine. Attention is paid on the research of modern scientific research on Traditional Chinese medicine related to the theory of Traditional Chinese medicine, through research and experiment to understand the general picture of pharmacological research on traditional Chinese medicine.<br />
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3.针灸疗法是祖国医学遗产的一部分，也是我国特有的一种民族医疗方法。千百年来，对保卫健康，繁衍民族，有过卓越的贡献，直到如今，仍然担当着这个任务，为广大群众所信赖。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is a part of the Chinese medical heritage, as well as a unique ethnic medical method in China. For thousands of years, it has made outstanding contributions to the protection of health and the reproduction of the nation. Until now, it still bears this task and is trusted by the broad masses.<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is a part of the Chinese medical heritage, as well as a unique ethnic medical method in China. For thousands of years, it has made outstanding contributions to keeping health and breeding the nation. Until now, it still bears this task and is trusted by the broad masses.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在西医未传入中国之前，我们的祖祖辈辈都用中医中药来治疗疾病，挽救了无数人的生命。中医对疾病的治疗是宏观的、全面的。但是到了现代，随着西方自然科学和哲学的进入，西方医学的思维方式和研究方法构成了对中医学的挑战。<br />
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Before western medicine was introduced into China, generations of our ancestors used traditional chinese medicine to treat diseases and save countless lives. The treatment of diseases in TCM is macroscopic and comprehensive. However, in modern times, with the introduction of western natural science and philosophy, the way of thinking and research methods of western medicine have posed a great challenge to Traditional Chinese medicine.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:21, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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1.这部本草载药844种，并附有药物图谱，开创了我国本草著作图文对照的先例，不但对我国药物学的发展有很大影响，而且不久即流传国外；对世界医药的发展作出了重要贡献。<br />
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There are 844 kinds of herbal medicines in this book, which is attached with drug atlas. It sets a precedent for the comparison of Chinese herbal works with pictures and texts. It not only has a great influence on the development of Chinese pharmacology, but also spreads abroad soon, making an important contribution to the development of medicine in the world.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.李时珍的《本草纲目》(1596)在药物发展史上有巨大贡献，是我国传统医学的经典著作，全书共52卷，约190万字，收载药物1892种，插图1160帧，药方11000余条，是现今研究中药药理学的必读书籍，在国际上有七种文字译本流传。<br />
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Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica (1596) has made great contributions to the development of drug. It is a classic work of traditional Chinese medicine with 52 volumes and about 1.9 million words. It contains 1892 kinds of drugs, 1160 pictures and more than 11000 prescriptions, which is a necessary book for the study of Pharmacology of traditional Chinese medicine. There are seven versions of it in the world.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸疗法的特点是治病不靠吃药，只是在病人身体的一定部位用针刺入，达到刺潋神经并引起局部反应，或用火的温热刺激烧灼局部，以达到治病的目的。前一种称作针法，后一种称作灸法，统称针灸疗法。<br />
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The characteristic of acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is not to take medicine, but to prick nerves and cause reactions, or to burn skin with warm fire stimulation, so as to achieve the purpose of treatment. The former is called acupuncture, and the latter is called moxibustion.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中药产业是我国医药产业中独具特色和优势的领域，中药在我国使用已有五千年的历史积累，拥有系统的中医理论和丰富的临床经验。以现代科技手段开发中药，与化学药物和生物技术药物相比，具有风险低、命中率高、周期短、成本低的显著优势。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine industry is a unique and advantageous field in China's pharmaceutical industry. Chinese medicine has been used in China for 5000 years, and has systematic TCM theory and rich clinical experience. Compared with chemical drugs and biotechnological drugs, the development of traditional Chinese medicine by modern scientific and technological means has obvious advantages of low risk, high hit rate, short cycle and low cost.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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中医认为人体是一个有机整体，是由若干脏器和组织、器官所组成的。各个组织、器官都有着各自不同的功能，决定了机体的整体统一性。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) holds that human body is integral, composed of numerous organs, and tissues. Each tissue and organ boasts sundry functions, determining the whole body’s integral unity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 05:20, 3 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) holds that human body is integral, composed of numerous organs and tissues. Each tissue and organ boasts respective functions, determining the whole body’s integral unity.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:28, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
TCM emphasis the human body as a organic whole, comprising numerous organs and tissues. Respective function of each organ or tissue makes up this entity.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:45, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新冠肺炎疫情中，中医药在救治工作中也发挥了更加重要、更为广泛的作用。强化中西医结合、中医深度介入诊疗过程，成为医疗救治的鲜明特点，中医药在全国各地新冠肺炎防治中的价值被极大地肯定。<br />
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During the COVId-19 pandemic, TCM has played a more significant and widespread role on the medical work. The strengthening of the combination between TCM and Western medicine, and the deep intervention into therapy of TCM have become vivid specialties of medical therapy, thus gaining great affirmation for its value in the process of the prevention and diagnosis of COVID-19 across China.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 05:20, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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药理学的学科任务是要为阐明药物作用及作用机制、改善药物质量、提高药物疗效、防治不良反应提供理论依据；研究开发新药、发现药物新用途并为探索细胞生理生化及病理过程提供实验资料。<br />
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The academic task of pharmacy is to offer theoretical gists for the explanation of the effects and effective mechanism of medicine, improvement of the quality of medicine, improvement of effects of medicine, prevention and control of side effects, and to provide experimental data for the exploration of the new functions of medicine and the discovery of the physiological, biological, chemical and pathological processes of cells.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 05:20, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段。它是一种“内病外治”的医术。是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗全身疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture, as an approach to curing illnesses, is unique to China. It is a medical skill appealing to” taking external measures to treat internal illnesses”. And it also remedies sickness through conducting the meridians and acupoints, and applying certain methods of operation.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 05:20, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1. 她的团队从2000多种传统中药配方中提取了数百种药物，在疟疾感染的老鼠身上进行试验，最终锁定了一种青蒿提取物。<br />
Starting from 2000 traditional Chinese medicine remedies, her team made hundreds of herbal extracts and tested them in malaria-infected mice, finally settling on one made from sweet wormwood.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 11:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.金莲花在生物学、药物化学、药理学、药剂学和临床等方面具有很高的应用价值。<br />
Trollius chinensis Bge in pharmacognosy, pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacy and clinical application has higher application value.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 11:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸在中国自远古以来就被用作医疗手段了。针刺麻醉在外科手术上正在得到广泛应用。<br />
Acupuncture has been used as medical means since antiquity in China. Acupuncture anesthesia is rapidly gaining ground in surgical operations.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 11:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Acupuncture has been used as a medical treatment in China since ancient times. Acupuncture anesthesia is being widely used in surgery.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:50, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.随着人类回归大自然愿望的增强，以及崇尚天然药物和传统疗法的兴起，中医药发展方兴未艾，并已经传播到世界120多个国家和地区，受到各国人民的欢迎。<br />
As the aspiration of mankind for coming back to the mature increase, the natural medicine and the traditional therapy are now arising and being beeo development quite well. The traditional Chinese medicine has been given warm welcome by the people all over the world.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 11:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the increasing desire of mankind to return to nature, and the rise of respect for natural medicine and traditional therapies, the TCM is flourishing, and has spread to more than 120 countries and regions around the world, and is welcomed by people from all over the world. --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
Chinese medicine embodies the experiences and theoretical knowledge which gained from ancient Chinese’ fightings with diseases. It’s a medical theoretical system which gradually formed and developed through long time medical practices under the guidance of ancient Naive Materialism and spontaneous dialectics.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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四诊指的是望、闻、问、切。古称“诊法”。<br />
The Four Diagnosis refers to inspection, olfaction, and auscultation, also known as diagnostic methods in ancient times.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据中国传统医学，健康的身体取决于一种极其重要的能量循环，这就是身体中的“气”。<br />
According to traditional Chinese medicine, a healthy body depends on a significant energy circulation, which refers to “Qi” in one’s body.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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就宏观来看，中医发展前景由于近些年的宣传和支持算是打开了一定局面，但由于中医学科的特殊性，良莠不齐的现象还是很普遍，<br />
In the bigger picture, Chinese medicine is opening up a new prospect with publicity and supports in recent years. However, due to specialty of the subject of Chinese medicine, it’s still popular that the good and bad are intermingled.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:12, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
1.中医药事业是我国医药卫生事业的重要组成部分。国家大力发展中医药事业，实行中西医并重的方针，建立符合中医药特点的管理制度，充分发挥中医药在我国医药卫生事业中的作用。<br />
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The state vigorously develops the cause of Chinese medicine, implements the policy of equal emphasis on Chinese and Western medicine, establishes a management system that meets the characteristics of Chinese medicine, and gives full play to the role of Chinese medicine in my country's medical and health services.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is an important part of China's medical and health undertakings. The state vigorously develops TCM, implements the policy of giving equal emphasis to both Chinese and Western medicine, establishes a management system in line with the characteristics of TCM, and gives full play to the role of TCM in China's medical and health undertakings.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:11, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.药理学是基础医学与临床医学，医学与药学之间的桥梁学科。在药理学科学的理论指导下进行临床实践，在实验研究的基础上丰富药理学理论。<br />
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Pharmacology is a bridge between basic medicine and clinical medicine, medicine and pharmacy. We can carry out clinical practice under the theoretical guidance of pharmacological science and enrich pharmacological theory on the basis of experimental research.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Pharmacology is a discipline that bridges the gap between basic medicine and clinical medicine, between medicine and pharmacy. Clinical practice is guided by the theories of the science of pharmacology, and the theories of pharmacology are enriched on the basis of experimental research.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:11, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.艾灸历史源远流长，纵观艾灸的发展，可分为两个里程，第一个是传统艾灸，第二个是现代艾灸，不论是传统艾灸还是现代艾灸都有各自的特点、优势和不足之处。<br />
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Moxibustion has a long history. From the development of moxibustion, it can be divided into two milestones. The first is traditional moxibustion and the second is modern moxibustion. Both traditional and modern moxibustion have their own characteristics, Strengths and weaknesses.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moxibustion has a long history. Throughout the development of moxibustion, it can be divided into two milestones, the first is traditional moxibustion, the second is modern moxibustion, both traditional and modern moxibustion have their own characteristics, advantages and shortcomings.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:11, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中医药作为我国独特的卫生资源、潜力巨大的经济资源、具有原创优势的科技资源、优秀的文化资源和重要的生态资源，在经济社会发展中发挥着日益重要的作用。<br />
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As China's unique health resources, economic resources with huge potential, scientific and technological resources with original advantages, excellent cultural resources and important ecological resources, Chinese medicine plays an increasingly important role in economic and social development.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As China's unique health resources, economic resources with great potential, scientific and technological resources with original advantages, excellent cultural resources and important ecological resources, Chinese medicine plays an increasingly important role in economic and social development.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:11, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 中国历史上有“神农尝百草，日遇七十二毒”的传说，反映了古代劳动人民在与自然和疾病作斗争的过程中发现药物、积累经验的艰苦过程，也是中药起源于生产劳动的真实写照。<br />
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In Chinese history, there is a legend that "Shen Nong ever suffered 72 poisons in trying herb medicines”, which reflects the hard process of discovering drugs and accumulating experience in the process of fighting against nature and diseases. It is also a true portrayal of the origin of traditional Chinese medicine from productive labor. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 脉诊在我国有悠久的历史，它是我国古代医学家长期医疗实践的经验总结。据不完全统计，清代以前脉学著述已不下一百多种。其中虽有重复，但是仍不同程度地反映了我国古代脉学的发展。<br />
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Pulse-feeling has a long history in China. It is the experience summary of ancient Chinese medical practice. According to incomplete statistics, there are more than 100 kinds of studies about pulse-feeling before Qing Dynasty. Although there are some repetitions, they still reflect the development of the sphygmology in ancient China. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 灸法的起源与火的发现和使用有着密切的关系，当身体有某种不适时，用火去烘烤得以减轻，继而用各种树枝作为施灸工具，逐渐发展到艾灸。<br />
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The origin of moxibustion is closely related to the discovery and use of fire. When one feels unwell, the uncomfortable symptom can be reduced by baking with fire, and then various branches are used as moxibustion tools, which gradually developed into moxibustion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The origin of moxibustion is closely related to the discovery and use of fire. When one feels bad, the uncomfortable symptom can be reduced by baking with fire, and then various branches are used as moxibustion tools, which gradually developed into moxibustion. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:14, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 华佗是一位精通医术的著名医生，尤其出名的是他在外科方面的成就。当华佗成功地应用麻沸散麻醉病人而进行腹部手术时，世界其它国家的外科麻醉术尚处于摸索阶段。<br />
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Hua Tuo is a distinguished doctor who is proficient in medical skills, and he is especially famous for his achievements in surgery. When Hua Tuo successfully used mafeisan to anesthetize patients for abdominal surgery, the surgical anesthesia in other countries in the world was still in the exploratory stage. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hua Tuo was a distinguished doctor proficient in medical skills, and he was especially famous for his achievements in surgery. When Hua Tuo successfully used mafeisan to anesthetize patients for abdominal surgery, the surgical anesthesia in other countries in the world was still in the exploratory stage. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 09:14, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
中医是研究人体生理病理以及疾病的诊断和防治的一门学科。<br />
TCM is a subject focus on the physiology, pathology and the prevention and diagnose of disease.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a subject that explores the physiology and pathology of human body and the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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把脉是中国古代传统医学家独创创，即用手指按脉，根据脉象来诊断疾病。<br />
pulse taking, invented in ancient China, needs somebody use the finger to feel the pulse so as to diagnose.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Pulse monitoring, initiated by ancient Chinese traditional medicine researchers, is a method of pressing the pulse with the finger and diagnosing diseases according to the pulse condition.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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针灸治疗很温和，无痛，也很放松。<br />
Acupuncture treatment is gentle, painless and relaxing.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 09:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Acupuncture is mild, painless and relaxing--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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1. 每种中药都有自己特定的适宜生长环境。中药的地域特色——“道地性”——是指特定的地域所产的药材具有独特的药效。道地药材在某种意义上代表着药材的优异品质,也就是药材中的名牌了。<br />
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Each Chinese medicine has its own specific suitable growth environment. The regional characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine-"authentic"-refer to the unique efficacy of the medicinal materials produced in a specific region. Genuine medicinal materials represent the excellent quality of medicinal materials in a sense, that is, the famous brand of medicinal materials.<br />
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2. 用自然之物养生或治病的生活智慧，是中国人留传亘古的宝贵遗产。这就是至今仍让一些外国人以为是迷信、妖术的中医学。追溯中医学的历史可知，“世间百草皆入药”，是人类逐步认识自然和总结实践经验的产物。<br />
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The wisdom of using natural things to preserve one's health or cure diseases is a precious legacy left by the Chinese people. This is traditional Chinese medicine, which still makes some foreigners think it is superstition and witchcraft. Tracing back to the history of traditional Chinese medicine, we can see that "all herbs in the world are used as medicines", which is the product of human beings' gradual understanding of nature and summing up practical experience.<br />
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3. 针刺疗法简称“针刺”，是古人将金属制作的细针刺入人体的某些部位，即穴位，来达到治病的目的。由于汉语为单音词，人们通常习惯于将“针刺疗法”与“灸法”并称为“针灸”。“灸”法是烧灼的意思，是用草纸将干燥的艾叶等卷成圆柱状，点燃一端靠近皮肤，利用艾叶燃烧时所散发出来的热量刺激人体穴位治疗疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture therapy is referred to as "acupuncture" for short. The ancients put fine needles made of metal into some parts of the human body, i.e. Acupuncture points, to achieve the purpose of curing diseases. As Chinese is a monosyllabic word, people are usually used to calling "acupuncture therapy" and "moxibustion method" acupuncture and moxibustion ". "Moxibustion" means cauterization. It is to roll dry Artemisia argyi leaves and the like into a cylinder with straw paper, ignite one end close to the skin, and use the heat emitted by the burning of Artemisia argyi leaves to stimulate human acupuncture points to treat diseases.<br />
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4. 近几十年来，中医在海外尤其是在西方发展迅猛。从某种角度看，这显示了传统医学与占主流的西方医学的一次互补。实际上，中医与西医在海外的相遇已有几百年了；奇妙的是，我们在这一历史中，始终可以感觉到隐含在中医里的那种柔和似水的力量。<br />
In recent decades, traditional Chinese medicine has developed rapidly overseas, especially in the West. From a certain point of view, this shows a complementarity between traditional medicine and mainstream western medicine. In fact, Chinese medicine and Western medicine have met overseas for hundreds of years. Amazingly, in this history, we can always feel the soft and watery power hidden in traditional Chinese medicine.<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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1. 中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。除此之外对汉字文化圈国家影响深远，如日本汉方医学，韩国韩医学，朝鲜高丽医学、越南东医学等都是以中医为基础发展起来的。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine was born in primitive society. The theory of Chinese medicine has basically taken shape during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period and developed in later dynasties. In addition, it has a far-reaching influence on the countries which have Chinese character culture. For example, Japanese Kampo medicine, Korean medicine, North Korean medicine, and Vietnamese Dong medicine are all developed on the basis of Chinese medicine.<br />
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2. 药理学是基础医学与临床医学，医学与药学之间的桥梁学科。在药理学科学的理论指导下进行临床实践，在实验研究的基础上丰富药理学理论。<br />
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Pharmacology is a bridge between basic medicine and clinical medicine, medicine and pharmacy. We should carry out clinical practice under the theoretical guidance of pharmacological science and enrich pharmacological theory on the basis of experimental research.<br />
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3. 灸法是以预制的灸炷或灸草在体表一定的穴位上烧灼、熏熨，利用热的刺激来预防和治疗疾病。通常以艾草最为常用，故而称为艾灸。<br />
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Moxibustion uses prefabricated moxibustion sticks or moxibustion grass to burn and iron on certain acupoints on the body surface, using heat stimulation to prevent and treat diseases. Moxa is usually the most commonly used, so it is called moxibustion.<br />
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4. 扁鹊是中医学的开山鼻祖,世人敬他为神医。从司马迁的不朽之作《史记》及先秦的一些典籍中可以看到扁鹊既真实又带有传奇色彩的一生。<br />
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Bian Que is the originator of Traditional Chinese medicine. The world respected him as a highly skilled doctor. From Sima Qian's immortal work "Historical Records" and some of the classics of the pre-Qin period, we can see that Bian Que's life is both true and legendary.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.中医药，是包括汉族和少数民族医药在内的我国各民族医药的统称，反映了中华民族对生命、健康和疾病的认识。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine, the general term for China’s medicine of ethnic groups including Han and minorities, reflects Chinese nation’s cognition to life, health and diseases.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:45, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine, reflecting Chinese people's knowledge about life, health and illness, is the general term for medicines of all ethnic groups of China including medicines of Han nationality and other ethnic minorities.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 05:24, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.古代医药先贤对中草药和中医药学的深入探索、研究和总结，使得中草药得到了最广泛的认同与应用。如《本草纲目》被誉为“东方药物巨典”，对人类近代科学以及医学方面影响最大。<br />
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The ancient Chinese wise man of medicine deeply explored, researched and concluded the Chinese herbal medicine and traditional Chinese medicine, leading to the wide recognition and application of the Chinese herbal medicine. For example, ''Compendium of Materia Medica'', honored as the great masterpiece of oriental medicine, has a far-reaching influence on modern human science and medicine.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:45, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.到如今为止，针灸已经传播世界140多个国家和地区，为保障全人类的生命健康发挥了巨大的作用。<br />
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By now acupuncture has spread to more than 140 countries and regions around the world, playing a great role in safeguarding the life and health of the whole of humanity.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:45, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So far, acupuncture has spread to more than 140 countries and regions in the world, which has played a huge role in protecting the life and health of all mankind.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:45, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中医诞生于原始社会，春秋战国时期中医理论已基本形成，之后历代均有总结发展。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine was born in primitive society, formed the fundamental theory of traditional Chinese medicine in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and further concluded and developed in other dynasties.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:45, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine was born in primitive society, formed its fundamental theory in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and further concluded and developed in the later dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.宋朝是我国成药大发展时期，设立有专门的制药、售药机构.<br />
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The Song Dynasty was a period of great development of medicines, when specialized pharmaceutical and drug sales agencies were established.<br />
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2.《黄帝内经》、《难经》、《神农本草经》和《伤寒杂病论》四部经典著作奠定了中医的理论基础。<br />
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The four classics "Huangdi Neijing", "Difficulty Classics", "Shen Nong's Materia Medica" and "Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases" laid the theoretical foundation of Chinese medicine.<br />
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3.明代是针灸发展的鼎盛时期，名医辈出，针灸理论研究逐渐深化，也出现了大量的针灸专著.<br />
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The Ming dynasty was the heyday of the development of acupuncture, when famous doctors appeared in large numbers, the theoretical research of it deepened, and a large number of acupuncture works appeared.<br />
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4.综观我国药物发展历程，可以看到其发展轨迹基本上遵循着由简单到复杂，由低级到高级的规律发生发展，并与社会各个时期的政治、经济、科学、文化密切相关.<br />
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Looking at the development history of drugs in my country, we can see that its development trajectory basically follows the law of development from simple to complex, from low-level to high-level, and is closely related to the politics, economy, science, and culture of society.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 02:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1.中医学是“以中医药理论与实践经验为主体，研究人类生命活动中医学中健康与疾病转化规律及其预防、诊断、治疗、康复和保健的综合性科学”。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine is "a comprehensive science that takes the theory and practical experience of traditional Chinese medicine as the main body, and studies the transformation laws of health and diseases, and its prevention, diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and health care in human life activities".<br />
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2.中医医生运用望、闻、问、切等对病人辩证审因，推断病机，确定病证，为预防、治疗疾病提供判断依据；运用中药方剂对病人进行整体治疗，或结合现代科技手段进行综合治疗。<br />
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Doctors of traditional Chinese medicine use looking, smelling, asking and cutting (Wang, Wen, Wen, Qie) to dialectically examine the causes of patients, infer the pathogenesis, determine the disease and syndrome, and provide judgment basis for preventing and treating diseases. They also use traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions to treat patients as a whole, or combine modern scientific and technological means to carry out comprehensive treatment.<br />
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3.艾灸，简称灸疗或灸法，是用艾叶制成的艾条，艾柱，产生的艾热刺激人体穴位或特定部位，通过激发经气的活动来调整人体紊乱的生理生化功能，从而达到防病治病目的的一种治疗方法。<br />
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Moxibustion, abbreviated as moxibustion or moxibustion, is a treatment method that uses moxa sticks and moxa pillars made of mugwort leaves to stimulate acupuncture points or specific parts of the human body, and adjusts the physiological and biochemical functions of human body disorders by stimulating the activities of meridians and qi, thus achieving the purpose of preventing and treating diseases.<br />
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4.中医药，是包括汉族和少数民族医药在内的我国各民族医药的统称，反映了中华民族对生命、健康和疾病的认识，具有悠久历史传统和独特理论及技术方法的医药学体系。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine is a general designation for the medicines of all ethnic groups in our country, including the medicines of the Han nationality and ethnic minorities. It reflects the Chinese nation's understanding of life, health and diseases and has a long historical tradition and unique theories and technical methods.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:29, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.中医学凝聚着中华民族的健康养生理念和实践经验,在应对复杂疾病及慢性病、促进人类健康等方面具有独特的优势,并在国外掀起传播的热潮。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine represents the health regiment idea and practice experience, which has unique advantages in dealing with complicated diseases and chronic diseases, promoting human health and other aspects.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine embodies the concept and practical experience of health preservation of the Chinese nation. It has unique advantages in dealing with complex diseases and chronic diseases and promoting human health, and it has set off an upsurge of spread abroad.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.一名好中医既要会号脉作出诊断，还要能根据病人情况开出一个最适合的药方。中药的汤药是不固定的。可以说每一个中医都要从头学起，号脉、开方的能力决定治疗水平。<br />
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A good Chinese medicine doctor is required to not only diagnose by feeling the pulse, but also write a most suitable prescription based on the patient’s condition. A decoction of medicinal ingredients of Chinese medicine is fixed. It can be said that every Chinese medicine doctor needs to study from the beginning and the ability of feeling the pulse and writing a prescription decides the treatment levels.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.简单来说艾灸就是利用艾草燃烧之后产生的温热能量来刺激人体特定部位，从而激发人体内部气的活动，进而达到保健养生的效果。<br />
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Briefly speaking, moxibustion is an activity that uses the thermal energy produced by burning the artemisia to stimulate specified parts of body, promoting the movement of qi within the body and further reaching the effect of health care.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.没有传承，中医药发展就没有根和魂；没有创新，中医药发展就没有活力和未来。<br />
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Without heritage, the development of TCM will be lack of its root and spirit; without innovation, the development of TCM will be short of vitality and future.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Without inheritance, the development of Chinese medicine will have no root and soul; without innovation, the development of Chinese medicine will have no vitality and future.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:44, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
1.中国传统医学的治疗理念正逐渐被世界所接受，传统医药受到国际社会越来越多的关注，世界范围内对中医药的需求日益增长，这为中医药的发展提供了广阔的空间。<br />
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The treatment concept of traditional Chinese medicine is gradually being accepted by the world, receiving more and more attention from the international community. The demand for traditional Chinese medicine is increasing worldwide, which provides a broad space for the development of traditional Chinese medicine.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 10:24, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The healing philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine is gradually being accepted by the world, traditional medicine is receiving more and more attention from the international community, and the demand for TCM is increasing worldwide, which provides a broad space for the development of TCM.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.诊病，亦称辨病，是在中医学理论指导下，综合分析四诊资料，对疾病的病种作出判断，得出病名诊断的思维过程。<br />
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Diagnosis, also known as disease differentiation, is the thought process of comprehensively analyzing the data of the four diagnoses under the guidance of the theory of Chinese medicine, making judgments on the type of disease, and deriving the diagnosis of the disease name.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 10:24, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Diagnosis of diseases, also known as disease identification, is a thought process to comprehensively analyze the information of the four diagnoses under the guidance of Chinese medicine theory, make judgments on the types of diseases, and arrive at a diagnosis of disease names.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.在战国时代的《黄帝内经》中，已形成了人体完整的经络系统，并对针灸方法、针刺适应证等做了详细论述。<br />
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In the ''Huangdi Neijing'' of the Warring States Period, a complete meridian system of the human body has been formed, and acupuncture methods and indications of acupuncture are discussed in detail.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 10:24, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine of the Warring States period, the complete meridian system of the human body has been formed, and acupuncture methods, acupuncture indications, etc. have been discussed in detail.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.中药在中国古籍中通称“本草”。我国最早的一部中药学专著是汉代的《神农本草经》，唐代由政府颁布的《新修本草》是世界上最早的药典。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine is commonly called "Materia Medica" in ancient Chinese books. The earliest monograph on traditional Chinese medicine in China is the ''Shen Nong's Materia Medica'' in the Han Dynasty. The ''Xinxiu Materia Medica'' promulgated by the government in the Tang Dynasty is the world's earliest pharmacopoeia.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 10:24, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese medicine is commonly referred to as "materia medica" in ancient Chinese texts. China's earliest monograph on TCM is the Divine Husbandman's Classic of the Materia Medica (Divine Husbandman's Classic of the Materia Medica) from the Han Dynasty, and the Xin Xiu Ben Cao (Newly Revised Classic of the Materia Medica) from the Tang Dynasty is the world's oldest pharmacopoeia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.中医承载着中国古代人民同疾病作斗争的经验和理论知识，是在古代朴素的唯物论和自发的辩证法思想指导下，通过长期医疗实践逐步形成并发展成的医学理论体系。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine bears the experience and theoretical knowledge of the ancient Chinese people's struggle against diseases. It is a medical theoretical system gradually formed and developed through long-term medical practice under the guidance of ancient naive materialism and spontaneous dialectics.<br />
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2. 问诊是询问病人及其家属，了解现有证象及其病史，为辨证提供依据的一种方法。<br />
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Inquiring is a method to inquire the patient and his family members, understand the existing syndromes and their medical history, and provide the basis for syndrome differentiation.<br />
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Interrogation is a method of asking patients and their family members, understanding the existing symptoms and medical history, and providing a basis for syndrome differentiation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 针灸是一种中国特有的治疗疾病的手段。它是一种“内病外治”的医术。是通过经络、腧穴的传导作用，以及应用一定的操作法，来治疗全身疾病。<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique Chinese treatment for diseases. It is a kind of medical method to treat internal diseases by external treatment". It is through the conduction of channels and acupoints, as well as the application of certain operations, to treat systemic diseases.<br />
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Acupuncture is a unique Chinese treatment for diseases and a medical method to "treat internal diseases by external treatments" which treat systemic diseases through the conduction of channels and acupoints, as well as the application of certain operations.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 10:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.东汉出现了著名医学家张仲景， 他已经对“八纲”（阴阳、表里、虚实、寒热）有所认识，总结了“八法”。华佗则以精通外科手术和麻醉名闻天下，还创立了健身体操“五禽戏”。唐代孙思邈总结前人的理论并总结经验，收集5000多个药方，并采用辨证治疗，因医德最高，被人尊为“药王”。<br />
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Zhang Zhongjing, a famous medical scientist in the Eastern Han Dynasty. He had already understood the "eight principal syndromes" (yin and yang, exterior and interior, cold and heat, under activity and over activity) and summarized the "eight methods". Hua Tuo was well known for his expertise in surgery and anesthesia, and founded the "the frolics of five animals" exercise program. Sun Simiao in the Tang Dynasty summarized the theories and experiences of his predecessors, collected more than 5,000 prescriptions, and treated them with syndrome differentiation. He was respected as the "king of medicine" for his highest medical ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 09:20, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.简而言之，中药就是指在中医理论指导下，用于预防、治疗、诊断疾病并具有康复与保健作用的物质。由于中药以植物药居多，故有“诸药以草为本”的说法。<br />
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In short, Chinese medicine refers to substances that are used to prevent, treat, and diagnose diseases under the guidance of Chinese medicine theory and have the functions of rehabilitation and health care. Since most Chinese medicines are botanicals, there is a saying that "all medicines are herb-based".--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:19, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.中药学是研究中药的基本理论和临床应用的学科，是中医药各专业的基础学科之一。<br />
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Chinese pharmacy is a discipline that studies the basic theories and clinical applications of Chinese medicine, and it is one of the basic disciplines of Chinese medicine.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:19, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.针灸如今可以治疗的病症达800多种，其中30%～40%治疗效果显著。一些常见疾病，功能性疾病，慢性病与急性病用以针灸辅助更见疗效。<br />
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Acupuncture and moxibustion can treat more than 800 kinds of diseases, of which 30% to 40% have significant therapeutic effects. The treatment of some common diseases, functional diseases, chronic diseases, and acute diseases is more effective with acupuncture.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:19, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.现知的最早本草著作称为《神农本草经》，著者不详，根据其中记载的地名，可能是东汉医家修订前人著作而成。<br />
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The earliest known book on Materia Medica is called "Shen Nong's Materia Medica", of which the author is unknown. According to the names of places recorded in it, it may have been revised by predecessors in the Eastern Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:19, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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中医预防医学首先强调人体在能量摄入上的平衡。没有能量，人的生命将无法维持。<br />
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TCM preventive medicine emphasizes first and foremost the balance of energy intake in the body. Without energy, human life cannot be sustained.<br />
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中医批评那种不注重整体性的诊治方式，是“头痛医头，脚痛医脚“。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has criticized that kind of diagnosis and treatment as "stop-gap" and "removal of lesion" without focusing on a holistic approach.<br />
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针灸是中医的中药治疗方法，它的神奇疗效已为世人所知。<br />
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Acupuncture is a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) treatment method that has been well- known for its miraculous healing properties.<br />
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当前中药产业国际化进程还面临着出口产品结构单一、中药文化壁垒、海外准入门槛较高、出口分类不规范等挑战。<br />
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The current internationalization process of the TCM industry is still facing challenges such as single export product structure, cultural barriers to TCM, high threshold for overseas entry, and irregular export classification.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 14:49, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.中医是中华文化不可分割的一部分，为中华的繁荣昌盛做出了极大的贡献。如今，中医和西医都被世界各地的医生用来治疗疾病。中医，以其独特的诊断手法、悠久的历史和显著的疗效被用来医治各种癌症和重大疾病。中药不像西药那样会产生许多副作用。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine is an indispensable part of Chinese culture. It has made great contributions to the prosperity of China. Nowadays, both Traditional Chinese Medicine and western medicine are being used to cure people all around the world. The TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods, long history and remarkable effects, have been used to treat cancer and other serious diseases. Unlike the western medicine, the TCM has fewer side effects.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 12:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.中医开得药方多包括植物的根、茎、树皮、叶子、种子或花，以及一些矿物质和动物器官。这些草药通常需要熬煮。为了配方，中医会将一些具有特殊功效的药草混合在一起。<br />
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Prescriptions are made from the roots, stems,bark, leaves, seeds or flowers of many plants, as well as some mineral and animal parts.The herbs are usually decocted into a soup.To make up a prescription, the TCM doctor carefully blends together a number of herbs which have specific functions.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 12:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.刮痧是以中医经络腧穴理论为指导，通过特制的刮痧器具和相应的手法，蘸取一定的介质，在体表进行反复刮动、摩擦。<br />
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Gua Sha is form guided by the theory of Meridians and collaterals and acupoints in traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) . By using special scraping instruments and corresponding ways to irritate repeatedly on the body surface with a certain medium.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 12:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.葛洪，东晋人，预防医学介导者，其理论包括了免疫学的萌芽思想。<br />
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Ge Hong is the mediator of preventive medicine,he was born in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and his theory contains the sprout idea of immunity.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 12:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
1.中医药学是中华民族的传统医学，具有浓郁民族文化特色和天人合一的哲学认知优势，历史悠久，博大精深。<br />
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Traditional Chinese Medicine is the traditional medicine of the Chinese nation. It has strong national cultural characteristics and the philosophical cognition advantage of harmony between man and nature, which has a long history and is broad and profound.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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2.中医认为，疾病的发生发展及转归的过程，实质上就是正邪相争、损伤与抗损伤的博弈过程。中医治病运用的是扶正祛邪、标本兼治的辨证思想。<br />
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Traditional Chinese medicine believes that the process of the occurrence, development and outcome of a disease is essentially a game between good and evil, injury and anti-injury. TCM treatment uses the dialectical thought of strengthening the body and eliminating evils, and treating both symptoms and root causes.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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3.针灸是以中医经络腧穴理论为指导，运用针具与艾叶等主要工具和材料，通过刺入或薰灼身体的特定部位，以调节人体平衡状态，从而达到保健和治疗疾病的传统知识与实践。<br />
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Acupuncture is guided by the theory of meridians and acupoints in Chinese medicine. It uses needles, wormwood and other main tools and materials to pierce or burn specific parts of the body to adjust the balance of the body, thereby achieving traditional knowledge and practice of health care and treatment of diseases.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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4.中医药文化作为我国传统文化的重要组成部分，蕴涵着丰富的哲学思想和精神价值，是前人留下的宝贵的非物质文化遗产，推进中医药文化的对外传播，对于提高国家软实力以及国际影响力，维护世界文化的多样性发展都具有重要的意义。<br />
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As an important part of our country’s traditional culture, TCM culture contains rich philosophical thoughts and spiritual values. It is a precious intangible cultural heritage left by predecessors. Promoting the external dissemination of TCM culture is of great significance for improving the country’s soft power and international Influence and maintaining the diversity of world culture.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==<br />
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1.Traditional Chinese medicine aims to restore the body’s balance and harmony between the natural opposing forces of yin and yang, which can block qi and cause disease.<br />
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传统中药的目的是恢复人体自然平衡的阴阳力量之间的平衡与和谐。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 14:49, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Of major importance to clinical pharmacology are recent Traditional Chinese Medicine evidenced-based empirical studies, correlations, and interactions between herbs and pharmaceuticals, updated data on toxicity, adverse reactions, quality assurance, and herbal medicine standardization.<br />
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对于临床药理学而言，最重要的是最近的基于中医证据的实证研究，草药与药物之间的相关性和相互作用，毒性，不良反应，质量保证和草药标准化的最新数据。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 14:49, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.The purpose of moxibustion, as with most forms of traditional Chinese medicine, is to strengthen the blood, stimulate the flow of qi, and maintain general health.<br />
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与大多数传统中药一样，艾灸的目的是增强血液，刺激气血流动和维持整体健康。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 14:49, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.Traditional Chinese Medicine evolved as a system of medical practice from ancient China more than 2000 years ago.<br />
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中医从2000年前的古代中国发展成为一种医疗实践体系。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 14:49, 6 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_cult&diff=11191020201207 cult2020-12-14T04:10:01Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
1.6世纪，佛教从中国经朝鲜传入日本，此后一直成为日本的主要宗教。<br />
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Buddhism was introduced to Japan from China via Korea in the 6th century and has been the main religion of Japan ever since.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 10:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.近代中国学者多数认为：道家与道教是两个既相互联系又有区别的概念。<br />
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Most modern Chinese scholars believe that Taoism and Daoism are two concepts that are both interrelated and distinct.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 10:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.穆罕默德在早期的宣教中，告诫人们放弃多神信仰和偶像崇拜，宣称真主是宇宙万物的创造者，是唯一的主宰，要求人们信奉独一无二的真主。<br />
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In his early preaching, Muhammad admonished people to abandon polytheism and idolatry, proclaimed that God is the creator of all things in the universe and the only Lord, and asked people to believe in the one and only God.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 10:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.上帝的创造以及人作为上帝的形象：世界是上帝创造的，上帝照着自己的形象造人。<br />
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God's creation and man as the image of God: The world was created by God, and God made man in His own image.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 10:04, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.佛教解释了生命的真相，它对世上种种不公正以及不平等现象（人生的痛苦）作出了解释，并提供了修行解脱的道路，使人走向真正的幸福。<br />
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Buddhism explains the truth of life, as well as all the injustices and inequalities (the pain of life) around the world. And it provides paths for people to spiritual liberation, which leads them to true happiness. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.道教理论的最普遍图形表示就是阴和阳循环的圆形图像，它代表了宇宙中相反事物的平衡关系，当它们都平等地呈现出来，所有的一切都会平静。当其中一个超过另一个的时候，就会出现混淆。<br />
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The most common image of Taoist theology is the circular ''yin''-''yang'' figure which represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally presented, all is in a tranquil state. When one is outweighed by the other, there are confusion and disarray. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教认为《古兰经》是“神圣的语言”，是伊斯兰教信仰和教义的最高准则，是伊斯兰教法的渊源和立法的首要依据，是穆斯林道德行为的重要准绳，也是伊斯兰教各学科和各派别学说赖以建立的理论基础。<br />
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Islam believes that ''The Koran'' is the supreme principle of its belief and doctrine, the origin of Islamic law and the primary basis for legislation. It is an important criterion for Muslims' moral behavior, and is also the theoretical foundation on which various disciplines and sects of Islam rely. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.原罪思想，使得治理国家的办法应依托于制度，依托于法律，实现了从“人治”到“法治”的飞跃，不仅如此，赎罪的观念，引起了资本主义精神的产生，推动了西方资本主义的发展。<br />
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The thoughts of original sin made the way of governing the country rely on the system and the law, achieving a leap from "rule of man" to "rule of law". In addition, the concept of atonement gave rise to the spirit of capitalism and promoted the development of Western capitalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.佛陀涅槃后，弟子们奉行四谛，八正道等基本教义，在教团生活中维持着他在世时的惯例。<br />
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After the Buddha’s nirvana, his disciplines followed the basic doctrines of the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Noble Way so as to maintain the conventions of his lifetime. <br />
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2.道教主张以清静无为，不争寡欲的态度对待世俗生活，以“我命在我不在天”的精神进行修炼。<br />
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Taoism claims that we should let things take their own course and keep ourselves from desires in the secular life, and dominate our own destiny in the process of practicing austerities.<br />
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3.各氏族部落各据一方，逐水草而居，彼此之间经常为争夺牧场，水源，土地而发生战争。<br />
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The clans occupy various areas by the water and grass, but will frequently launch wars for pasture, water and land. <br />
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4.神爱世人，甚至将他的独生子（耶稣基督）赐给他们，叫一切信他的，不至灭亡，反得永生。<br />
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God loves people so much that he even bestows his only son-Jesus Christ to them and whoever believes in him will not perish but instead have a eternal life.<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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1. One significant difference between Chinese Buddhism and original Buddhist teachings is the belief that Buddha is not just a teacher who taught followers what to do, but a god to be prayed to for help and salvation. <br />
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中国佛教与原始佛教教义之间的一个重要区别是，人们相信佛陀不仅是向跟随者传教如何做的老师，而且是向上帝祈祷以寻求帮助和救赎的老师。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 20:22, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. At Taoist temples, people may worship Taoist idols that represent a historical figure, an immortal, or a folk god. <br />
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在道观中，人们可能会崇拜代表历史人物，神仙或民间神灵的道教神像。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 20:22, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. In 1910, it was estimated that Muslims made up about 1 or 2 percent of the population of China (about 7 million people).<br />
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据估计，在1910年，穆斯林约占中国人口的1-2％（约700万人）--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 20:22, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. Chinese Christians must believe that a man born thousands of years ago and thousands of kilometers away to an unknown alien people was the Son of God. <br />
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中国基督徒必须相信，一个千百年前出生在千里之外与一个陌生的外星人相伴的人是上帝的儿子。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 20:22, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
1. 佛教在西汉时期（公元前206年—公元24年）经丝绸之路传入中国。经过500多年的跌宕起伏，它在唐朝达到了顶峰。<br />
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Buddhism had been introduced to China via the Silk Road during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC—24 AD). After five hundred years of peaks and troughs, it reached its height during the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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2. 道教是中国土生土长的宗教，已经影响了中国人两千多年。道教有三个起源，最古老的是“黄帝”传说。第二个来源是庄子的作品。但最著名的是老子的《道德经》。道家强调自由、自然、修身养性，甚至追求永生。道教对中国文化的许多领域都产生了深刻而持久的影响，包括艺术、哲学、医学和美食，并在东亚地区广泛流传。<br />
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Taoism is a Chinese native religion that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. There are three sources of Taoism's origin, with the oldest being the legend of "Yellow Emperor". The second source in Zhuangzi's works, while the most famous one is Laozi's Dao De Jing. Taoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation and even pursues immortality. Taoism has had a deep and lasting influence in many fields of Chinese culture, including the arts, philosophy, medicine, and cuisine. It has also spread widely throughout East Asia.<br />
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3. 在伊斯兰文化中，几何无处不在。在清真寺、宗教学校、宫殿和私人房屋里，你都能觅得它的踪迹。这个传统始于公元8世纪的伊斯兰教早期，那时的工匠们借鉴了罗马和波斯文化中已经存在的图案，用它们转化出新的的视觉效果。<br />
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In Islamic culture, geometry is everywhere. You can find it in mosques, madrasas, palaces and private homes. This tradition began in the 8th century CE during the early history of Islam, when craftsmen took preexisting motifs from Roman and Persian cultures and developed them into new forms of visual expression.<br />
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4. 基督教开始的时候只是犹太教的一个分支。最早的基督教徒根本没想过创办新的宗教, 他们自视为追随犹太教弥赛亚教义的犹太人。只是后来在许多非犹太人改变信仰之后, 基督教才脱离犹太教, 自成一体。<br />
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Christianity began life as a Jewish sect. Far from attempting to find a new religion, the first Christians viewed themselves as Jews following the teachings of the Jewish Messiah . It was only later, after many non-Jews converted, that Christianity became a religion distinct from Judaism.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.“阿弥陀佛”是一个梵语词，字面意思为无限的光和无限的生命。他是极乐世界里的佛，在极乐世界里，众生都享受着无限的幸福。<br />
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“Amitabha” is a Sanskrit word literally meaning boundless light and boundless life. He is the Buddha in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, in which all beings enjoy unbound happiness.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:59, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。<br />
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The created universe carries the yin at its back and the yang in front, through the union of the pervading principles it reaches harmony.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:59, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 截止到2009年底，世界人口约68亿人口中,穆斯林总人数是15.7亿,分布在204个国家和地区，占全世界的23%。<br />
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By the end of 2009, of the world's population of about 6.8 billion, the total number of Muslims was 1.57 billion, distributed in 204 countries and regions, accounting for 23% of the world's total population.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:59, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 耶稣，又名耶稣基督，是基督教的中心人物，被大多数基督教会尊为上帝的儿子和上帝的化身。<br />
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Jesus, known as Jesus Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and is revered by most Christian churches as the Son of God and the incarnation of God. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 10:59, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. “Amitabha” is a Sanskrit word, literally meaning endless light and forever life. He is the Buddha in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, in which all beings enjoy unbound happiness.<br />
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2. The created universe carries the yin at its back and the yang in front, through the union of the pervading principles it reaches harmony.<br />
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3. By the end of 2009, the world’s population was about 6.8 billion, of which the total number of Muslims was 1.57 billion, in 204 countries and regions, accounting for 23% of the world’s population.<br />
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4. Jesus, known as Jesus Christ, is the central figure of Christianity, revered by most Christian churches as the Son of God and the incarnation of God. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1. 佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br />
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After Buddhism spreading to every region, because of the influence of local society, politics and culture, its form and content have changed accordingly and formed many sects.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:13, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion originated in China and founded by the Chinese, so it is also called native religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:13, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The Islam is from the religion of a single ethnic group in the Arab region to the religion of multi-ethnic belief in the world, and it is the result of the wide spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:13, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.早期基督教神学家通过发挥基督教的基本教义，依托当时流行的哲学载体，构造出更加复杂的教义体系。<br />
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Early Christian theologians constructed a more complex doctrine system by giving full play to the basic teachings of Christianity and relying on the popular philosophical carriers at that time. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:13, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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1、佛教中常说的烦恼，就从妄想中来。妄想爱情美好，妄想荣华富贵，妄想健康长寿，当达不到这些标准的时候，烦恼就来了。<br />
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Buddhism says that people's worries come from their desires such as the desire for beautiful love, money, health and longevity. If they cannot reach their desires, worries come.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、老子以「道」作为最初本源和内在支配者，认为世间万物存在着互联、互动的密切关系。<br />
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Lao zi suggests that Tao is the original source and inner ruler, and everything in the world has close interconnection and interaction with each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、伊斯兰教自创兴迄今已有1400多年的历史，它作为一种宗教信仰、意识形态和文化体系，传入世界各地后，与当地传统文化相互影响和融合，在不同历史条件下，对许多国家和民族的社会发展、政治结构、经济形态、文化风尚、伦理道德、生活方式等都发生了不同程度的影响。<br />
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Islam boasts a long history of more than 1400 years so far. As a religion, ideology and cultural system, it has made influences to different extends on the social development, political structure, economic form, culture, ethic and life style of many countries as well as nations at different stages through the mutual influence and integration with local cultures after it was spread worldwide. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、圣经又分为两部分:《旧约》和《新约》，《旧约》与《新约》以耶稣出生为界限划分，前者主要侧重于对犹太民族历史的讲述以及犹太人对于其真神的讲述。<br />
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The Bible has two part:"The Old Testament", "The New Testament", which was divided by the birth of Jesus. The former emphasizes on telling the history of Jewish people and their talks about the true god.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
<br />
1. Mahayana Buddhism was originally founded during the Kushan Empire and spread to China where various school sects were developed; before spreading further and becoming popular in other Asian countries like Japan. <br />
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大乘佛教最初是在库山帝国时期建立的，并传播到发展了各种学派的中国。 在进一步传播并在日本等其他亚洲国家流行之前。 --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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大乘佛教最初是在库山帝国时期建立的，并传播到了中国，并在中国发展了各种学派。之后，进一步传播到了日本等其他亚洲国家，并且很受欢迎。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. Taoism is basically a term for China’s indigenous philosophies and religious beliefs, and as defined this way, it has always been China’s main religion that colors all the others. <br />
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道教从根本上说是中国本土哲学和宗教信仰的术语，按照这种定义，道教一直是中国的主要宗教，为所有其他宗教增色。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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道教从根本上说是指代中国本土哲学和宗教信仰的术语，按照这种定义，道教一直是中国的主要宗教，并为所有其他宗教增色。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. Thus less than 20 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was officially introduced and started to become established as a new religion and culture in China. <br />
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因此，在先知死后不到20年的时间里，伊斯兰教就被正式引入并开始在中国确立为一种新的宗教和文化。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在先知死后不到20年的时间里，伊斯兰教就被正式引入中国，并在此开始建立一种新的宗教和文化。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. Unlike other Chinese religious adherents, Christians in China become Christians by the change of faith and not by birth. <br />
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与其他中国宗教信奉者不同，中国的基督徒通过改变信仰而不是出生而成为基督徒。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与其他中国宗教信奉者不同，中国的基督徒加入基督教是通过改变信仰而不是出生。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:11, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
1.隋唐佛教的发展，对文学、艺术也提供了绝佳的题材与灵感，当时文人学士对於佛教的磅礴精深与僧侣的精神修养，产生崇高的敬意，归向者颇多，如韩愈、白居易、柳宗元、王维、李翱、裴休等，都与佛教有深厚的因缘，因此蕴含佛教哲理的诗文创作也应运而生。<br />
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The development of Buddhism in the Sui and Tang dynasties also provided excellent subjects and inspiration for literature and art. The literati and scholars at that time had a high respect for the majestic depth of Buddhism and the spiritual cultivation of monks, and there were many of them, such as Han Yu, Bai Juyi, Liu Zongyuan, Wang Wei, Li Ao, Pei Xiu, etc. They all had a deep connection with Buddhism, and therefore poems and writings containing Buddhist philosophies came into being.<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as an indigenous religion. Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times ， serving as one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.<br />
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3.基督宗教发端于公元1世纪罗马帝国统治下巴勒斯坦地区的犹太团体。1至5世纪是基督宗教创立并从以色列传向希腊罗马文化区域的时期，是基督宗教发展的早期阶段，是使徒和早期教父建立基督宗教基本教义和神学学说的时期。<br />
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The Christian religion began with the Jewish community in Palestine under the Roman Empire in the 1st century A.D. The period from the 1st to the 5th centuries, when the Christian religion was founded and spread from Israel to the Greco-Roman cultural region, was the early stage of its development, when the apostles and early fathers established the basic doctrines and theological doctrines of the Christian religion<br />
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4.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The development of Islam from a regional Arab mono-ethnic religion to a world-wide multi-ethnic religion is the result of the widespread spread of Islam in Arab countries through continuous foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges and the sending of missionaries to various parts of the world.<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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1.佛教在西汉时期（公元前206年——公元24年）经丝绸之路传入中国，经过500多年的跌宕起伏，在唐朝达到了顶峰。<br />
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Buddhism had been introduced to China via the Silk Road during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC—24 AD), reaching its height during the tang Dynasty.After five hundred years of peaks and troughs.<br />
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2.一开始，道教只在平民中受欢迎，晋朝(265—420)时开始在上层社会得到广泛流行，在之后的北齐和北凉，道教得到了当权者的恩惠并一度在朝堂上扮演重要角色。<br />
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At first, Taoism only gain the popularity among civilians and during the Jin Dynasty (265—420) it became a prevalence in the upper society, and in the succession of Northern Qi and Northern Liang, Taoism gained good graces of the ruler and once play a critical role in court.<br />
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3.每年都有众多的朝圣者去麦加朝拜。因此,“ 麦加”这个词 后来就被收入英语, 引申为“ 人们渴望拜访的地方。<br />
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Every year numerous pilgrims go to Mecca to pay homage. Thus the word“Mecca”has come into English language, meaning“place one aspires to visit”.<br />
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4.尽管基督教与犹太教具有很多共同点, 但这两个宗教在像上帝与人的关系等基本问题上有着差别明显。<br />
Although Christianity shares much with Judaism, these two faiths differ significantly with respect to such fundamental issues as God’s relationship with humanity. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1.禅宗主张因材施教。它除了要对信徒给予面对面的传教说法之外，还要通过一些动作以及手势来教导信徒。这些特点都让禅宗能够避免走进教条主义以及形式主义等不好的方向，也因此能够长久地在民间得到发展和深入。<br />
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Zen Buddhism prefers teaching people according to his or her ability. In addition to giving face-to-face instruction to its adherents, it also teaches through gestures. All these characteristics have enabled Zen to avoid going in the wrong direction of dogmatism and formalism, so as to develop and deepen its popularity in the long run.<br />
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Zen Buddhism advocates teaching according to the ability of the student. In addition to giving face-to-face instruction, it also teaches through gestures and gestures to its followers. These characteristics allow Zen to avoid going in the bad direction of dogmatism and formalism, and thus to develop and deepen its popularity in the long run.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教理论的最普遍图形表示就是阴和阳循环的圆形图像。它代表了宇宙中相反事物的平衡关系。当它们都平等地呈现出来，所有一切都会平静。当其中一个超过另一个的时候，就会出现混淆和混乱。阴和阳是信徒追随的原型，有助于让个人去凝视他或她的生命状态。<br />
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The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular Yin Yang figure. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang are a model that the faithful follow, an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of his or her lives.<br />
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The most universal graphic representation of Taoist theory is the circular image of the yin and yang cycles. It represents the balance of opposite things in the universe. When they are all equally represented, all is calm. When one outweighs the other, there is confusion and chaos. The yin and the yang are archetypes followed by the devotee, helping the individual to gaze at his or her life state.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教是世界三大宗教之一，伊斯兰教世界的国家遍布亚、非两个大洲，总体算来也有大约五十个。此外，在各大洲很多国家里都有信仰伊斯兰教的人民（穆斯林）。这些国家包括一些西方国家诸如英、美、俄、法、德等国家。<br />
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Islam is one of the three major religions in the world, it covers Asia and Africa with about fifty Islamic countries. In addition, there are many countries in the world that have people who believe in Islam (Muslim). These countries include some western countries, such as the UK, the US, Russia, France and Germany.<br />
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Islam is one of the three major religions of the world, and the countries of the Islamic world are spread over two continents, Asia and Africa, and there are about fifty countries in total. In addition, Islam is practiced by people (Muslims) in many countries on all continents. These countries include some Western countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Russia, France, and Germany.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教对西方文明产生了非常大的影响。自由、平等、博爱为中心的人文主义传统，使得“生而平等”观点深入人心，成为《独立宣言》《人权宣言》 中的核心，成为后来西方民主政治的- -种长远的精神推动力。<br />
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Christianity had a profound impact on Western civilization. Its humanist tradition, which focused on freedom，equality and fraternity, made the idea of "born equal" popular in the world. It not only became the core of "Declaration of Independence" and "Declaration of Human Rights"，but also a long-term spiritual driving force of the Western democracy.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Christianity has had a great influence on Western civilization. The humanist tradition centered on freedom, equality, and fraternity made the idea of "all men are created equal" deeply rooted in people's hearts, and became the core of the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of Human Rights, as well as the long-term spiritual impetus for Western democratic politics.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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1.Buddhism was said to be founded in India in the 6th century BC by Siddhartha Gautama, son of a nobleman and member of the Kshatriya caste, near the present borders of India and Nepal. <br />
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据信佛教是在公元前6世纪由印度贵族之子，克萨特里亚种姓的成员悉达多·豪达玛（Siddhartha Gautama）在印度建立的，大约在公元前6世纪，在当今印度和尼泊尔的边界附近。<br />
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2.There are two types of Buddhism in China, Mahayana (Big Raft) Buddhism and Hinayana (Little Raft) Buddhism.<br />
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在中国，佛教有两种类型，大乘佛教（大木筏）和小乘佛教（小木筏）。<br />
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3.Mahayana Buddhism was introduced into regions inhabited by the Han people, the largest ethnic group in China, in the first century. <br />
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大乘佛教在公元一世纪被传入中国最大的民族汉族居住的地区。<br />
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4.Taoism is the only major religion that came exclusively from Chinese roots and grew to maturity in Chinese soil. <br />
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道教是唯一完全起源于中国的宗教，并在中国土壤中逐渐成熟。<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
1. 严格地说，佛教起始于尼泊尔，发展在中国，又远传于日本、韩国。而佛教在印度本土由于受到印度教及后来传入印度的伊斯兰教的排挤，约在公元八、九百年左右，在印度本土消失。而能保留佛教并发展佛教的中国就成了当今世界佛教的真正故乡。<br />
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Strictly speaking, Buddhism began in Nepal, developed in China, and spread as far as Japan and Korea. Buddhism, on the other hand, disappeared in India itself around 800 or 900 A.D. due to the ostracism of Hinduism and later Islam, which was spread to India. China, which was able to retain Buddhism and develop it, became the true home of Buddhism in the world today.<br />
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2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一.<br />
Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture in ancient China and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.<br />
<br />
3. 伊斯兰教自创兴迄今已有1400多年的历史，它作为一种宗教信仰、意识形态和文化体系，传入世界各地后，与当地传统文化相互影响和融合，在不同历史条件下，对许多国家和民族的社会发展、政治结构、经济形态、文化风尚、伦理道德、生活方式等都发生了不同程度的影响<br />
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As a religious belief, ideology and cultural system,Islam has spread to different parts of the world and has influenced and integrated with local traditional cultures, influencing the social development, political structure, economic forms, cultural customs, ethics and morals, and lifestyles of many countries and nations in different degrees under different historical conditions.<br />
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4.由于历史原因，在华人中长期以来都习惯只把新教称为基督教。大陆的新教教会也从不称自己为新教，而只称基督教或耶稣教，而将罗马公教称为天主教，正教称为东正教。<br />
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For historical reasons, it has long been customary among the Chinese to refer to Protestantism only as Christianity. The Protestant churches on the mainland of China also never call themselves Protestant, but only Christian or Jesuit, while the Roman Catholic Church is referred to as Catholic and the Orthodox Church as Orthodox.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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1.公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼于古印度创建佛教。以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
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From the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC, Sakyamuni founded Buddhism in ancient India. Since then, it has been widely spread in Asia and all over the world, and has had a significant impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion originated in China and founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as local religion. Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China, and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教是世界性的宗教之一，与佛教、基督教并称为世界三大宗教。信奉伊斯兰教的人统称为“穆斯林”(意为“顺从者”)。7世纪初兴起于阿拉伯半岛，由麦加人穆罕默德(约570—632)创传。主要传播于亚洲、非洲，以西亚、北非、中亚、南亚次大陆和东南亚最为盛行。<br />
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Islam, together with Buddhism and Christianity, is one of the world's three religions. People who believe in Islam are collectively referred to as "Muslims" (meaning "followers"). It originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the early 7th century and was created by Muhammad (570-632) of Mecca. It mainly spreads in Asia and Africa, especially in West Asia, North Africa, Central Asia, South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，历代神学家企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。很多神学家的著作也是阐发基督教基本教义的宝贵资源。<br />
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Christianity generally believes that its basic doctrines are derived from the Bible. The church in history has made a lot of concise summary of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed, creed and epistemology, which is also regarded as the source of doctrine by scholars who study dogmatics today. In addition, the theologians of all ages tried to explain and distinguish the Christian faith principle according to the concept of their times. The works of many theologians are also valuable resources for elucidating the basic tenets of Christianity.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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1. 道教理论的最普遍图形表示就是阴和阳循环的圆形图像。它代表了宇宙中相反事物的平衡关系。当它们都平等地呈现出来。所有一切都会平静。当其中一个超过另一个的时候，就会出现混淆和混乱。阴和阳是信徒追随的原型，有助于让一个人去凝视他或她的生命状态。<br />
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1. The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular Yin Yang figure. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang are a model that the faithfull follow, an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of his or her lives.<br />
<br />
1. The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular image of the Yin and Yang. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally presented, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang are the archetypes followed by disciple, helping each person to contemplate the state of his or her lives.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 佛教与基督教、伊斯兰教并称的世界三大宗教之一。公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼创建于古印度。以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
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2. Buddhism, together with Christianity and Islam, is one of the three major religions in the world. Sakyamuni founded it in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. After that, it was widely spread in Asia and all over the world, and had a great influence on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.<br />
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2. 佛教是与基督教、伊斯兰教并称的世界三大宗教之一。在公元前6世纪至前5世纪由释迦牟尼创建于古印度，之后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会、政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
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Buddhism, enjoying equal popularity with Christianity and Islam, is one of the three major religions in the world. Sakyamuni founded it in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. After that, it was widely spread in Asia and all over the world, making a great impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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2. Buddhism, together with Christianity and Islam, is one of the three major religions in the world. It was founded by Sakyamuni in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC and later widely spreaded in Asia and all over the world, having a great influence on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 伊斯兰教的名字来源于阿拉伯语的音译。它的本义是服从，它的信徒叫穆斯林。伊斯兰教成立于7世纪初，是世界三大宗教之一。<br />
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3. The name of Islam derives from the transliteration in Arabic. Its original meaning is obedience, and its believers are called muslem. Islamism was established at the beginning of the 7th century and ranked one of three major religions in the world. <br />
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The word Islam is a transliteration of an Arabic word. Its essence is obedience, and its followers are called Muslims. Founded in the early 7th century, Islam is one of the three major religions in the world. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:38, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 基督教是亚伯拉罕的一神论宗教，以耶稣基督的生活和教义为基础，如新约中所述。基督教是世界上最大的宗教，有超过24亿信徒，被称为基督徒。基督徒相信耶稣是上帝的儿子，是人类的救世主，他作为基督或弥赛亚的到来在旧约中被预言。<br />
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4. Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with over 2.4 billion adherents, known as Christians. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as Christ or the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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印度佛教最初传入中国，因文化背景全然不同，故被视为与当时流行的黄老神仙方术同类，仅通行於少数的王公贵族之间。<br />
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Because of different cultural background, the Indian Buddhism was considered to be similar to the Huanglao in China, consequently only popular among a small number of nobles.<br />
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When Indian Buddhism was first introduced into China, because of its different cultural background, it was regarded as the same as Huang Lao, which was popular at that time, and only popular among a small number of nobles.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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After the founding of the Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, the Taoism gained a new life and gradually embarked on a path adapting to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and government's religious policies in the new era, Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look, making positive contributions to the economic development, social harmony, the unification of China and the world peace.<br />
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伊斯兰教反对偶像崇拜，所以清真寺内没有任何由人形和动物形组成的偶像图案。寺内装饰大多以阿拉伯文、几何图纹和花卉画纹组成抽象图案为主。<br />
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Islam is against idol worship, so there are no idol motifs consisting of human or animal shapes in the mosques, most of which are decorated with abstract designs consisting of Arabic, geometric patterns and floral paintings.<br />
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Islam rejects idolatry, so the mosques are not decorated with any human or animal figures. The interior of the mosque is mostly decorated with abstract designs consisting of Arabic, geometric and floral motifs.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 02:01, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于新教（反对教）教义强调只能信上帝，不能拜其他偶像，因此与"祭奠祖先"等很多中国传统习俗产生了很大抵触，使得基督教之前在中国一直没有得到很好的传播和发展，直到后来来中国传教的刚恒毅（1876年－1958年）与雷鸣远神父解释中国人祭祖敬孔礼并不违背教会的信仰，中国人这么地做是为了向已亡的父母和祖先表达尊敬。教宗碧岳十二世因而在1939年12月8日删除了祭祖敬孔的禁令，才解决了这一问题。然而，新教一直也不接受中国人拜祖先。<br />
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There was a great conflict between Christianity and many traditional Chinese customs such as "ancestor worship", for the Protestant demands that only God can be believed in and no other idols can be worshipped, so Christianity did not spread and develop well in China until later when the missionary Gang Hengyi (1876-1958) and the priest Lei Mingyuan explained to the Chinese that the ritual of the Confession of Confucius is not contrary to the beliefs of the Church because it is done by the Chinese to show respect to their late parents and ancestors. Pope Pius XII therefore solved the problem by removing the ban on ancestor worship on December 8, 1939. However, Chinese ancestor worship has always been unacceptable to Protestants.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 13:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
1.禅宗主张心性本净，佛性本有，觉悟不假外求，舍离文字义解，直彻心源。<br />
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Zen advocates that the mind and nature are pure, the Buddha's nature is original, enlightenment is achieved by oneself, and the interpretation of words is left, leading to the heart.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:18, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 道教以道为最高信仰，把《道德经》奉为经典，尊道贵德。认为道是产生天地万物的本源，宇宙、阴阳和万象万物都是由道化生的。德即“得”，道体现在人和万物中即是德。人和万物都是由道生由德育，所以应尊道贵德。<br />
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Taoism takes Tao as its highest belief, regards the Tao Te Ching as a classic, and respects the virtue of Taoism. It is believed that Tao is the origin of everything in heaven and earth, and everything in the universe, yin and yang is transformed by Tao. Tao means "getting", and morality is embodied in man and all things. People and all things are born by Tao and moral education, so we should respect Tao and noble virtue.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:18, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 《古兰经》是伊斯兰教唯一的根本经典。<br />
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The Koran is the only fundamental classic of Islam.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:18, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 后人为纪念耶稣的诞生，便定十二月二十五为圣诞节，年年望弥撒，纪念耶稣的出世。<br />
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Later generations, in order to commemorate the birth of Jesus, set December 25th as Christmas, and observed Mass every year to commemorate the birth of Jesus.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:18, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.佛教自汉代传入中国,并逐渐与儒道并行互融,成为中国文化有机而重要的组成部分,对中国文化的影响至深至远。<br />
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Since its introduction to China in the Han Dynasty, Buddhism has gradually become an organic and important part of Chinese culture in parallel with Confucianism and Taoism, and has had a profound and far-reaching impact on Chinese culture.<br />
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2.道教文化体现着中国人的哲学思维、认知观念、价值取向、 审美情趣，正如鲁迅先生所说，每一个中国人在意识深处都是一个道教徒。<br />
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Taoist culture embodies the philosophical thinking, cognitive concepts, values, and aesthetic interests of the Chinese people, and as Mr. Lu Xun said, every Chinese person is a Taoist deep in his or her consciousness.<br />
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3.新疆伊斯兰教作为中国的宗教,坚持中国化方向,进行中国化改造是历史必然,符合客观规律。<br />
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As a Chinese religion, it is historically inevitable for Xinjiang Islam to adhere to the direction of Chineseness and undergo Chineseness transformation, which is in line with objective laws.<br />
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4.自唐代传入中国以来,基督教在华传播的历程伴随着问题与挑战,在很长的历史时期中基督教与中国既有的哲学、宗教与伦理体系(包括儒家思想、道教、中国佛教以及鬼神和祖先崇拜的"中国民间宗教")互动,同时通过适应和文化融入的方式努力将自身"本土化"与"中国化"。<br />
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Since its introduction to China in the Tang Dynasty, the spread of Christianity in China has been accompanied by problems and challenges, and over a long historical period Christianity has interacted with China's established philosophical, religious, and ethical systems (including Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and the "Chinese folk religions" of ghosts, gods, and ancestor worship) while trying to "localize" and "sinicize" itself through adaptation and cultural integration.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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1、三大宗教中，以基督教人数最多，伊斯兰教次之，佛教最后，虽然人数各有不同，但是各个宗教的信徒都是平等的。虽说是三大宗教，但三大宗教提倡和平共处，可以相互交流文化。慈悲，博爱，和平，是这三大宗教的真谛。同时这也是所有宗教的共同目标。<br />
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Among the three major religions, Christianity has the largest number of people, followed by Islam and Buddhism last. Although the number of people varies, the followers of each religion are equal.Despite they are the three major religions, but they promote peaceful coexistence and mutual cultural exchange. Compassion, love and peace are the true meaning of these three religions. This is also the common goal of all religions.<br />
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In terms of the number of believer, Christianity ranks the first, followed by Islam and Buddhism the last. Varied in number, the followers of each religion are equal. Despite of different beliefs, the three major religions called for peaceful coexistence and mutual cultural exchanges. Compassion, love and peace are the essence and common goal of these three religions. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 16:12, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、约在公历纪元前后，佛教传入中国。在汉代被视为神仙方术的一种。至南北朝时传播于全国，出现了很多学派。隋唐时期进入鼎盛阶段，形成了很多具有中国民族特点的宗派。<br />
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Buddhism was introduced into China around the time of the Gregorian calendar. During the Han Dynasty, it was regarded as a form of divine magic. By the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, it spread throughout the country and many schools of thought emerged. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, it reached its peak and many sects with Chinese national characteristics were formed.<br />
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3、在基督教早期阶段，教会曾实行财产共有，外界视其为一种秘密性的宗教组织。犹太人视教会为离经判道的异端，常常向罗马当局控告他们。<br />
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In the early stages of Christianity, the Church was a community of shared property and was seen by others as a secret religious organization. The Jews regarded the church as a deviant heresy and often brought charges against them to the Roman authorities.<br />
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4、伊斯兰教要求人们信仰真主并服从真主，从心灵深处信仰真主的存在和伟大，同时要求在行为上要表现出顺从真主的意志，力行一定的功修，把信仰和行为的实践联合起来，达到增强信仰、巩固信仰的目的。<br />
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Islam requires people to believe in God and obey Him, to believe in His existence and greatness from the depths of their hearts, and to demonstrate obedience to His will in their actions, to perform certain practices, and to unite their faith with the practice of their actions in order to strengthen their faith and consolidate it.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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Islam requires people to believe in Allah and obey Him, to believe in His existence and greatness from the depths of their hearts, and to demonstrate obedience to His will in their actions, to perform certain practices, and to unite their faith with the practice of their actions in order to strengthen and consolidate their faith.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 16:12, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1．中国佛教译经事业的历时久远，可说是世界文化史上首屈一指的大业，而所译经论卷帙的庞复，诚为世界文化的瑰宝。<br />
Chinese Buddhism's translation with a long history can be said to be one of the greatest undertakings in the history of world culture, and the vast number of translated scriptures is truly a treasure of world culture.<br />
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Chinese Buddhist scripture translation has a long history, and it can be said to be a major cause in the history of world culture. The Pangfu of the translated scriptures is truly a treasure of world culture. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2．新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
After the founding of People’s Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Chinese Taoism was reborn and gradually made its way in line with the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party’s and government's new religious policy, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look, and thus has made a positive contribution to promoting economic development, social harmony, the unification of China, and world peace.<br />
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3．基督教文化是属于扩张型的，其哲学观念认为时间是有始有终的，而空间是无限可重复的，所以欧洲人最早猜测出地球是圆的。<br />
Christian culture is expansive, and its philosophy holds that time has a beginning and an end, while space is infinitely repeatable, so Europeans first guessed that the earth is round.<br />
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4．伊斯兰教的形成是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
The Islam came from its wide spread in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, sending missionaries to the world and other means.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:40, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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The formation of Islam is the result of the widespread dissemination of Arab Islamic countries through various channels such as continuous external expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and sending missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 20:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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1. 佛教僧侣并不扮演牧师的角色——他们并非人神的中介——其律例也不诉诸超自然的力量或权威。其次，简化物质，佛教认为对物质的执着是造成痛苦的根源，因为没有什么是永恒的。<br />
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Buddhist monks have no priestly role--they are not intermediaries between God and mankind--and their ordination confers no supernatural powers or authority. In addition, to simplify it, Buddhists believe that attachment- the clinging onto objects- is what causes suffering because nothing will last forever. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:33, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhist monks have no priestly role--they are not intermediaries between God and mankind--and their ordination confers no supernatural powers or authority. In addition, Buddihism also simplify substance. It regards clinging onto objects as the causes suffering because nothing will last forever.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 作为早期道教的重要经典，《太平经》蕴含着丰富的美学思想，对后世道教美学产生过深远影响。《太平经》不仅记载了我国古代最早的道教音乐理论，而且对乐律与人的身心健康的关系给予了相当的重视。<br />
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As an important classic of early Taoism, Scripture of the Great Peace reserves plenty of aesthetic thoughts and had profoundly influenced the Taoist aesthetics. Scripture of the Great Peace not only records the earliest Taoist musical theories of our ancient country, but also attaches importance to the relation between music and physical and psychological health .--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:33, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 伊斯兰系阿拉伯语音译，愿意为“顺从”“和平”。信奉伊斯兰教的人统称为“穆斯林”。伊斯兰教至今已有1400多年的历史，它传入世界各地后，对许多国家和民族的社会发展、政治结构、经济形态等都产生了不同程度的影响。<br />
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Islam is an Arabic word meaning “obedience ”and “peace”. People who believe in it are called “Muslims”. Islam has a history of more than 1400 years. After its introduction to other parts of the world, it has posed varying degrees of influence on the social development, political structure, economic form and others. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:33, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 在西方天主教的传统中，白色代表喜庆，其他地区，白色在婚礼和葬礼上代表了不同的意义。 《圣经》是天主教徒奉为圣言的经典、必读之书。它不仅是一部宗教经典，也是世界文化和知识宝库的一部杰作。<br />
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According to Catholic tradition in the West, white represents happiness; in other areas, white embodied different significance at weddings and funerals. The Bible is a classic and required reading for Catholics. It is more than a religious classic, but also a masterpiece of the world’s culture and intellectual treasures. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:33, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Catholic tradition in the West, white represents happiness, while in other areas, it embodied different significance at weddings and funerals. The Bible is a classic and required book for Catholics. It is more than a religious classic, but also a masterpiece of the world’s culture and intellectual treasures.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br />
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Due to local social, political, and cultural influences, the form and content of Buddhism will change accordingly when spread to every region, resulting in the formation of many sects.<br />
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After its spreading to other regions, forms and contents saw changes and various sects were formed. The reason is that Buddhism was influenced by different local social, political and cultural environments. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:48, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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After the founding of People’s Republic of China, Chinese Taoism was reborn through democratic reforms of religious system, and gradually embarked on a path compatible with the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look thanks to religious policies carried out by Chinese Communist Party and the government, which has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, national reunification and world peace.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Islam has developed from a single -ethnic religion in Arab region to a multi-ethnic one in the world,which is a result of the wide spread of Islam of Islamic states in Arab in many ways, such as continuous expansion, trade and cultural exchange and the dispatch of missionaries all over the world.<br />
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Islam has developed from a exclusive religion in Arab region to a multi-ethnic one in the world,which is a result of efforts from Islam of Islamic states in Arab in many ways, from continuous expansion, trade and cultural exchange to the dispatch of missionaries all over the world.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:25, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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4.历史上的教会以信经、信条等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，神学家们企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。<br />
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The churches in history have provided many concise summaries of the basic doctrine of Christianity in the form of creed, tenet, etc., which are considered the origin of doctrine by today's scholars of dogmatics.What’s more, theologians have attempted to elucidate and discern the essentials of the belief in Christianity combing with the concepts of their time.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
1、创始人释迦牟尼生于今尼泊尔境内的蓝毗尼，是释迦族的一个王子。关于他的生卒年，在南、北传佛教中，至今仍有种种不同的说法，一般认为生于公元前6至前5世纪间。他在青少年时即感到人世变幻无常，深思解脱人生苦难之道。29岁出家修行。得道成佛。<br />
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The founder, Sakyamuni, was born in Lumbini in present-day Nepal and was a prince of the Sakya tribe. There are still different theories about his birth and death dates in Northern and Southern Buddhism, but it is generally believed that he was born between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. At the age of 29, he became a monk and practiced Buddhism. He became a monk and became a Buddha.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The founder, Sakyamuni, was born in Lumbini in present-day Nepal and was a prince of the Sakya tribe. There are still different theories about his birth and death dates in Northern and Southern Buddhism, but it is generally believed that he was born between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. At the age of 29, he became a monk and practiced Buddhism. --[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:51, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br />
新中国成立后，广大道教徒拥护社会主义制度，拥护共产党的领导。<br />
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Before the liberation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taoism was full of feudalism. It was a major task for Taoists in the new PRC to educate themselves about patriotism, reform the feudal economy of the palaces, abolish the feudal remnants of Taoism, and clear the boundaries with the reactionary Taoists.<br />
Since the founding of New China, the majority of Taoists have embraced the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Before the liberation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taoism was full of feudalism. It was a major task for Taoists in the new PRC to educate themselves about patriotism, reform the feudal economy of the palaces, abolish the feudal remnants of Taoism, and clear the boundaries with the reactionary Taoists.<br />
After the founding of new China, the majority of Taoists have given support to the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:52, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Developing from a single ethnic religion in the Arab region, Islam finally became a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:43, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The development of Islam from the religion of a single nation in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world is the result of the extensive spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, sending missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:51, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，历代神学家企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。<br />
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Christianity is generally believed to derive its basic doctrines from the Bible. The historical church has provided many concise summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in the form of creeds, epistles, confessions, and other forms, which are also regarded as sources of doctrine by scholars of doctrine today. In addition, theologians throughout the ages have attempted to explain and discern the essentials of the Christian faith in light of the concepts of their time.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Christianity generally believe that its basic doctrines derive from the Bible. The historical church has provided many concise summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in the form of creeds, epistles, confessions, and other forms, which are also regarded as sources of doctrine by scholars of doctrine today. In addition, theologians throughout the ages have attempted to explain and discern the essentials of the Christian faith in light of the concepts of their time.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:51, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
1. 隋唐佛教的兴盛繁荣，除得力於佛教本身在南北朝所奠定的稳固基础外，更有赖於国家的统一强盛及护持提倡。<br />
The prosperity of Buddhism in the Sui and Tang dynasties not only resulted from the solid foundation of Buddhism in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, but also from the unification of the state and the promotion of its support.<br />
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2. 建国前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br />
The Taoism before 1949 was full of feudalism. It became a major task for Taoism in the new China to educate the Taoists on patriotism, abolish the feudal remnants in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoism sects.<br />
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3. 伊斯兰教反对偶像崇拜，所以清真寺内没有任何由人形和动物形组成的偶像图案。寺内装饰大多以阿拉伯文、几何图纹和花卉画纹组成抽象图案为主。<br />
Islam is against idol worship. Therefore, the mosque does not have any idol pictures made of human and animal shape. Most of the mosques are ornamented with abstract designs featuring Arabic, geometric and floral patterns.<br />
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4. 基督徒看重信徒间的交通。跟随基督是学效他的慈爱、公义与服侍人的榜样。要做到这些，必须在人际关系中具体表现出来；而这种机会得在教会中去找。<br />
Christians attach importance to fellowship among believers. To follow Christ is to learn from his love, justice and service to others. And those believers should practice it in human relationships; and such opportunities have to be found in the church.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:20, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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1.The prosperity of Buddhism in Sui and Tang Dynasties depends not only on the solid foundation laid by Buddhism itself in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, but also on the unity, prosperity and advocacy of the country.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 11:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was full of strong feudal atmosphere. It was an important task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for Taoist believers, abolish feudal remnants of Taoism and draw a clear line with reactionary sects.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 11:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.Islam opposes idolatry, so there are no idol patterns composed of human and animal in mosques. Most of the decorations in the temple are mainly abstract patterns composed of Arabic, geometric patterns and flower patterns.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 11:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.Christians value the communication between its believers. To follow Christ is to learn from his love, justice and service to others. To do this, we must practise it in interpersonal relationships; and this kind of opportunity has to be found in the church.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 11:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
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1.中国佛寺建筑与印度相同，没有殿堂，建塔藏舍利。后来建殿堂供奉佛像，殿堂与塔并重，但塔依然在殿堂之前。唐宋时期，佛寺发展以殿堂为主的布局。<br />
Chinese buddhist temple architecture is the same as India's, there is no temple, building pagoda and collecting relics. Later, the temple was built to worship the Buddha. The temple and the tower were equal, but the tower was still before the temple. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the temple of Buddhism developed in the form of halls.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:27, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.东汉末年出现大量道教组织，著名的有太平道、五斗米道。张道陵正式创立教团组织，距今已有1800年历史。<br />
In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a large number of Taoist organizations appeared, including the famous Taiping Taoism and the Daodoumi Taoism. It has a history of 1800 years since the official founding of the organization by Zhang Daoling.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:27, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰系阿拉伯语音译，公元七世纪由麦加人穆罕默德在阿拉伯半岛上首先兴起，原意为“顺从”、“和平”，指顺从和信仰创造宇宙的独一无二的主宰安拉，以求得和平与安宁。<br />
Islam originated in The Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad in the 7th century. Its original meaning is "obedience" and "peace". It refers to obeying and believing in Allah, the unique master who created the universe, in order to seek peace and tranquility.<br />
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4.基督教是对奉耶稣基督为救世主的各教派统称，亦称基督宗教。公元1世纪，发源于罗马的巴勒斯坦省（今日的以色列、巴勒斯坦和约旦地区）。它建立的根基是耶稣基督的诞生、传道、死亡与复活。基督教主要包括：天主教、新教、东正教三大教派和其他一些较小教派。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:27, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Christianity is a collective name for all denominations that worship Jesus Christ as the Savior, also known as Christianity.The Roman province of Palestine (present-day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan) in the 1st century AD. It is based on the birth, preaching, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Christianity mainly includes: Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox three denominations and some other smaller denominations.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:27, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.佛教创立后，在印度几经演变。佛陀及其直传弟子所宣扬的佛教，称为根本佛教。佛陀涅槃后，弟子们奉行四谛、八正道等基本教义，在教团生活中维持着他在世时的惯例。由于佛陀在世时于不同场合对不同的对象有着不同的说法，弟子们对此便产生不同的理解。<br />
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After the foundation of Buddhism, it has experienced several changes in India. The Buddhism advocated by Buddha and his direct disciples is called fundamental Buddhism. After the nirvana of the Buddha, the disciples pursued the basic doctrines of the four truths and the eight righteous doctrines, and maintained the conventions of his lifetime in the life of groups. Because Buddha had different views on different objects in different situations, so the disciples had different understandings about it.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。<br />
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After the founding of the people's Republic of China, some unreasonable systems and bad habits of Taoism in the old society were reformed, making the Taoism take on a new look. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association has realized the great union of Taoists in China, and the majority of taoists who love the nation have begun to work together for the development of Taoism which has been affected by the Anti-Rightist Movement, the Great Leap Forward, the People's Commune and other political movements.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The development of Islam from the religion of a single nation in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world is the result of the extensive spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, sending missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。<br />
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Christianity generally believes that its basic doctrines are derived from the Bible. The church in history has made a lot of concise summary of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed, creed and epistemology, which is also regarded as the source of doctrine by scholars who study dogmatics today.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.佛事仪式原是释迦时代所行的宗教活动，传到中国后演变为满足信众需求的经忏、佛事活动。主要有各种忏法、水陆法会、盂兰盆会、焰口等。<br />
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The Buddhist ceremony was originally a religious activity in the Sakyamuni era. After it was introduced to China, it evolved into a Buddhist activity to meet the needs of believers. The main activities include repentance rituals, water and land assembly, Yulan ceremony, Yankou, etc.<br />
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Buddhist rituals were originally religious activities practiced during the time of Sakya, but after their arrival in China, they evolved into sutra confessions and Buddhist rituals to meet the needs of the faithful. The main rituals include various confessions, water and land rituals, Bon rituals, and fireworks.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:45, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.后经魏晋南北朝数百年的改造发展，道教的经典教义、修持方术、科戒仪范渐趋完备，新兴道派滋生繁衍，并得到统治者的承认，演变为成熟的正统宗教。<br />
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After hundreds of years of transformation and development in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties, the classic doctrines, practicing methods, discipline and etiquette of Taoism became more and more complete, and the new Taoism school emerged and prospered, which was recognized by the rulers, and evolved into a mature orthodox religion.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The development of Islam from the religion of a single nation in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world is the result of the extensive spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.<br />
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The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:45, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教作为一神论的特色是基督教的神是“三位一体”的神，同一个上帝具有三个位格：圣父、圣子和圣灵。<br />
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The characteristic of Christianity as monotheism is that the God of Christianity is "Trinity" God, and a single God has three personalities: the Father,the Son and the Holy Ghost.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:04, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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The distinctive feature of Christianity as monotheism is that the Christian God is a "triune" God, the same God in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:45, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
1.中国佛教经南北朝时期的拓展发扬，随着隋唐的统一，在政治稳定、经济繁荣、文化融和及帝王的护持等条件下，使得佛教经典翻译更有系统，义理更为明确。<br />
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After Buddhism was extended and developed in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, along with the unity of China in Sui and Tang dynasties, a more complete system and theories were elaborated in a clearer way in the translation of Buddhist scriptures due to the political stability, buoyant economy, cultural integration and the emperors’ support. <br />
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2.道教从创教之初，就以老子的《道德经》为根本经典，将其中“道”和“德”作为基本的信仰。道教认为“道”是宇宙万物的本原和主宰，无所不在，无所不包，万物都是从“道”演化而来的。<br />
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Since Taoism was set up, it has regarded the Tao Te Ching by Laozi as its keystone work and considered the Tao, the Way and the Te, the Morality as its fundamental belief. Taoism emphasized the “Tao” is the source and principle of the universe; it exists everywhere and contains everything; it is the origin of everything that exists.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教既然认为安拉为人类造化了大地上的一切，所以就允许而且要求所有的穆斯林尽可能利用大地上的物质把自己装饰得美观一些、衣着讲究一些，因为这同享受安拉所创造的一切佳美的食物一样是对安拉恩赐的接纳。<br />
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Since Islam believes Allah created everything in the earth, all Muslims are required to make the most of the material to beautify and dress themselves, which is regarded as an acceptance of Allah’s gift, just like enjoying all the good food created by Allah.<br />
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4.康熙末年，因天主教会内部发生的可否允许中国内地教徒祭祖的“礼仪之争”相持日久，逐步升级为罗马教廷与中国朝廷的政治冲突，康熙帝断然对在华传教采取限禁措施。<br />
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In the last years of reign of Kangxi, there was a long-standing debate within the Catholic Church on whether to allow the Christians in mainland China to offer sacrifices to their ancestors. This debate gradually escalated into a political conflict between the Vatican and the Chinese imperial court, so the Emperors Kangxi resolutely put forward restrictions and a ban on missionary work in China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:31, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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1.约在19世纪末和20世纪初，佛教先后传入欧洲和北美。1906年英国成立“英国佛教协会”，欧洲佛教徒开始有自己的组织。以后英、法、德、瑞士、瑞典、捷克斯洛伐克、匈牙利等国都有佛教僧团和研究机构。佛教传入美国后，又北传加拿大，南传巴西、秘鲁、阿根廷等国。<br />
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Around the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Buddhism was introduced to Europe and North America successively. In 1906, Britain established the "British Buddhist Association", and European Buddhists began to have their own organizations. In the future, Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and other countries will have Buddhist monks and research institutions. After Buddhism was introduced to the United States, it spread to Canada in the north and Brazil, Peru, Argentina and other countries in the south.<br />
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2.新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。<br />
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After the founding of New China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Taoism in China gained a new life and gradually embarked on a path compatible with socialist society.<br />
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After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, through the democratic reform of religious system, Taoism of China was resurrected and gradually embarked a path compatible with the socialist society.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:33, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting <br />
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After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, through the democratic reform of religious system, Taoism of China was resurrected and gradually embarked on a path compatible with the socialist society.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 03:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.据统计，全世界穆斯林约有16亿人口（2018年），占同期世界人口总数的23.4％。在亚非40多个伊斯兰国家中，穆斯林占全国总人口的大多数。一些国家将伊斯兰教定为国教。<br />
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According to statistics, there are approximately 1.6 billion Muslims in the world (2018), accounting for 23.4% of the total world population in the same period. In more than 40 Islamic countries in Asia and Africa, Muslims account for the majority of the country's total population. Some countries have designated Islam as the state religion.<br />
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According to statistics, there are approximately 1.6 billion Muslims in the world (2018), accounting for 23.4% of the total world population during the period . In more than 40 Islamic countries in Asia and Africa, Muslims account for the majority of the country's total population. Some countries have designated Islam as their state religion.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:33, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting <br />
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4.由于历史原因，在华人中长期以来都习惯只把新教称为基督教。大陆的新教教会也从不称自己为新教，而只称基督教或耶稣教，而将罗马公教称为天主教，正教称为东正教。<br />
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Due to historical reasons, it has long been accustomed to call Protestantism only Christianity among Chinese. The Protestant churches on the mainland never call themselves Protestant, but only Christianity or Jesus, and the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church are called Eastern Orthodox.--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:29, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-一种源自Siddhārtha Gotama教义的东亚和中亚宗教，苦难是生活中固有的，可以通过培养智慧，美德和专注力来摆脱苦难。<br />
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A religion of eastern and central Asia growing out of the teaching of Siddhārtha Gautama that suffering is inherent in life and that one can be liberated from it by cultivating wisdom, virtue, and concentration.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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2-道教或道教是中国血统的哲学传统，强调与道家和谐相处。道是大多数中国哲学流派的基本思想。然而，在道教中，它表示的原则是存在的一切的来源，模式和实质。<br />
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Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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3-伊斯兰教是一种亚伯拉罕式的一神教，教导人们穆罕默德是上帝的最终和最终的使者。它是世界上第二大宗教，有18亿追随者，占世界人口的24.1％，被称为穆斯林。穆斯林占49个国家人口的绝大多数。<br />
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that Muhammad is the final and ultimate messenger of God. It is the world's second-largest religion with 1.8 billion followers or 24.1% of the world's population, known as Muslims. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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Islam, as an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, teaches people that Muhammad is the ultimate messenger of God. As the world's second-largest religion, it has 1.8 billion followers, accounting for 24.1% of the world's population, known as Muslims. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:51, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-基督教是一种拿撒勒人耶稣的生活和教导为基础的亚伯拉罕一神教。它的信徒被称为基督徒，他们相信耶稣是基督，弥赛亚的到来是在希伯来圣经中被预言的，该圣经在基督教中被称为旧约，并在新约中被记载。<br />
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Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity, and chronicled in the New Testament.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
1.佛教由Suddhadhon和Rani Mahamaya的儿子Siddhartha Gautama于公元前6日在印度（菩提伽耶）建立。<br />
Buddhism was founded in india (Bodh Gaya) in 6th BC by Siddhartha Gautama son of Suddhadhan and Rani Mahamaya.<br />
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2.大乘佛教是由中国最大的民族汉朝传入的。<br />
Mahayana Buddhism was introduced by the Han Dynasty, the largest ethnic group in china.<br />
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3.小乘佛教是公元前9世纪从缅甸传入的。<br />
Hinayana Buddhism was introduced from Burma, in 9th century BC.<br />
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4.喇嘛教是藏族土著宗教引入的一种佛教形式。<br />
Lamaism is a form of Buddhism introduces by indigenous Tibetan religion.<br />
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5.道教是最初来自中国人民的唯一宗教。 它起源于顺帝皇帝统治时期的汉朝。<br />
Taoism is the only religion originally came from Chinese people. It originated of the Han dynasty during the reign of Emperor Shundi.<br />
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6.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯先知穆罕默德创立。 对于具有伊斯兰信仰的穆斯林人民来说，只有一位真主真主。<br />
Islam was founded by the Arab prophet Muhammad. For Muslim people with Islamic faith, there is only one Allah.<br />
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7.基督教起源于耶稣的事奉，犹太人的老师和治疗者。 基督教是世界上最大的宗教，约有21亿追随者。<br />
Christianity originated from the ministry of Jesus, the teacher and healer of the Jews. Christianity is the largest religion in the world, with approximately 2.1 billion followers.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 19:22, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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1. Mahayana Buddhism was introduced into regions inhabited by the Han people, the largest ethnic group in China, in the first century.<br />
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大乘佛教于一世纪传入中国最大的民族汉族居住的地区。<br />
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2. Taoism is the only major religion that came exclusively from Chinese roots and grew to maturity in Chinese soil.<br />
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道教是唯一完全起源于中国的宗教，并在中国土壤中逐渐成熟。<br />
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3. Islam was officially introduced into China by Arabian envoys. Throughout the dynasties, many came over land to Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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伊斯兰由阿拉伯特使正式引入中国。 在整个王朝中，许多人来到了唐朝的高宗皇帝手中。<br />
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4. Christianity is a religion centered in Jesus Christ as the supreme revelation of God and Lord of His followers, and is based on His teaching.<br />
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基督教是以耶稣基督为中心的一种宗教，是上帝及其信徒的至高启示，是建立在他的教导基础上的。--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 00:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.佛教始于印度，距今已有两千五百多年的历史。佛是梵语，翻译成汉语是觉悟，觉悟超越生死、断尽烦恼，使众生得到解脱、脱离苦海。<br />
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With a history of more than 2500 years, Buddhism began in India. Buddha is a Sanskrit word that translates into Chinese as enlightenment, which transcends life and death, cuts off worries, and liberates sentient beings from the sea of suffering.<br />
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2.道教音乐，是中国宗教音乐之一。道教音乐是道教仪式中不可缺少的内容，它具有烘托、渲染宗教气氛，增强信仰者对神仙世界的向往和对神仙的崇敬。道教音乐吸取了中国古代宫廷音乐和传统民间音乐的精华，渗入道教信仰的特色，形成道教音乐的独特艺术风格，也是中国传统音乐的重要组成部份。<br />
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As one of the Chinese religious music. Taoist music is an indispensable element of Taoist rituals, which has the function of setting and rendering the religious atmosphere and enhancing the believers' yearning for the immortal world and reverence for the gods. Taoist music has absorbed the essence of ancient Chinese court music and traditional folk music, and infiltrated the characteristics of Taoist beliefs, forming the unique artistic style of Taoist music, which is also an important part of traditional Chinese music.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教礼仪，是伊斯兰穆斯林遵守的行为规范。《古兰经》是伊斯兰教的唯一经典，也是指导穆斯林行为的规范。<br />
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Islamic rituals, which are the codes of conduct observed by Islamic Muslims. The ''Koran'' is the only classic of Islam and the norm that guides the behavior of Muslims.<br />
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4.我们要遵行另一个原则：我们不是寻求自己的意愿，而是跟随上帝的旨意，并为了荣耀他而活。我们要忘却自我，学习顺服上帝和他的命令，成为忠于他的人。因为当圣经要求我们放下一切的挂念时，它不仅要我们除去对财富、权力、利益的非分之想，而且要根除一切企求属世荣耀的野心及渴慕，及其他不能为人知的歪念。<br />
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We are to follow another principle: we are not to seek our own will, but to follow God's will and live for his glory. We are to forget self, learn to obey God and his commands, and become faithful to him. For when the Bible asks us to let go of all our preoccupations, it does not only ask us to remove all thoughts of wealth, power, and profit, but also to eradicate all ambitions and desires for worldly glory, and other perverse thoughts that cannot be known to man.<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
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The spread of Buddhism to Asian countries can be divided into two routes: in its south direction, it was spread to Sri Lanka at first, then from Sri lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos and other countries. In its north direction, it was spread to China via Pamir Plateau and then from China to the North Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。<br />
Among the five religions of China, Daoism is the only one that originated from China and established by the Chinese. That’s why it is called indigenous religion. Daoism has had profound impact on ancient China’s politics, economic and culture and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of People’s Republic of China, Daoism was revitalized through democratic reform in religions system and started to set out on the path of adapting to socialist society.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among the five religions of China, Daoism is the only one that originated from China and established by the Chinese， thus being called indigenous religion. Daoism has had profound impact on ancient China’s politics, economy and culture and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of People’s Republic of China, Daoism was revitalized through democratic reform in religions system and started to set out on the path of adapting to socialist society.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:22, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.穆罕默德早年失学替人放牧，12岁时跟随伯父及商队，曾到叙利亚、巴勒斯坦和地中海东岸一带经商，广泛接触和目睹了阿拉伯半岛和叙利亚地区的社会状况，了解到半岛原始宗教、犹太教、基督教的情况，为他后来的传教活动提供了大量社会知识和宗教素材。<br />
When he was little, Muhammad dropped out of school and herded animals for people. At the age of 12, he followed his uncle and caravan of merchants to do business in areas such as Syria, Palestine, Mediterranean East Coast, where he had extensive contact with and witnessed social conditions of the Arabian Peninsula and Syria region, and learned about the primitive religions of Peninsula, Judaism and Christianity. All these provided a great amount of social knowledge and religious materials to his preach afterwards.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，历代神学家企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。<br />
Generally speaking, Christians think that they derive their basic doctrines from the Bible. The historical churches have made many concise summaries of the basic doctrines in the form of creeds, tenets, confessions, etc. , which are seen as sources of doctrines by scholars studying doctrines. In addition, many theologians throughout the ages have attempted to explain and distinguish key points of beliefs of Christian faith in the light of the ideas of their time.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, it is believed that the basic doctrines of Christianity derive from the Bible. Historical churches have given many concise summaries of the basic doctrines in the form of creeds, tenets and confessions, which are regarded as the source of doctrines by scholars studying dogmatics. Besides, theologians throughout the ages attempted to expound and clarify the essential points of beliefs of Christain faith in the light of the concepts of their time.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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1. 佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
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The spread of Buddhism to Asia can be divided into two routes: Southward to Sri Lanka, then from Sri Lanka to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and other countries. In the north, Buddhism spread to China via the Pamir High Plain, and then from China to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other countries.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:23, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The spread of Buddhism to Asia can be divided into two routes: Southward to Sri Lanka, then from Sri Lanka to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and other countries. In the north, Buddhism spread to China via the Pamirs Plateau, and then from China to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other countries.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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2. 新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。<br />
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After the founding of New China, some of the unreasonable systems and bad habits of Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism was given a new face. The founding of the Chinese Taoist Association brought about a great union of Taoists throughout the country, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by the Anti-Rightist Struggle, the Great Leap Forward, the Communization of the People's Republics and other political movements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:23, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the founding of New China, some of the unreasonable systems and bad habits of Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism was given a new face. The founding of the Chinese Taoist Association brought about a great union of Taoists throughout the country, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by the Anti-Rightist Struggle, the Great Leap Forward, the Movement of People's Commune and other political movements.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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3. 穆罕默德是一位杰出的历史人物。生于麦加城古莱什部落哈希姆家族。他自幼父母双亡，由祖父和伯父抚养。早年失学替人放牧，12岁时跟随伯父及商队，曾到叙利亚、巴勒斯坦和地中海东岸一带经商，广泛接触和目睹了阿拉伯半岛和叙利亚地区的社会状况，了解到半岛原始宗教、犹太教、基督教的情况，为他后来的传教活动提供了大量社会知识和宗教素材。<br />
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Muhammad is an outstanding historical figure. He was born into the H1ashemite family of the Quraysh tribe in the city of Mecca. His parents died at an early age and he was raised by his grandfather and uncle. At the age of 12, he followed his uncle and his caravan to Syria, Palestine and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, where he was exposed to and witnessed the social conditions in the Arabian Peninsula and Syria, and learned about the primitive religions of the Peninsula, Judaism and Christianity, which provided him with a great deal of social knowledge and religious materials for his later missionary activities.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:23, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Muhammad is an outstanding historical figure. He was born into the H1ashemite family of the Quraysh tribe in the city of Mecca. His parents died when he was was a kid and he was raised by his grandfather and uncle since then. At the age of 12, he followed his uncle and his caravan to Syria, Palestine and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, where he was exposed to and witnessed the social conditions in the Arabian Peninsula and Syria, and learned about the primitive religions of the Peninsula, Judaism and Christianity, which provided him with a great deal of social knowledge and religious materials for his later missionary activities.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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4. 宗教改革运动直接的导火线是教宗利奥十世以修建罗马圣彼得大教堂为名，于1517年派多明我会修士台彻尔到德国去兜售赎罪券，此事激起极大反感，据传马丁·路德于同年10月31日在维滕贝格教堂门前张贴反对兜售赎罪券的《九十五条论纲》,揭开这场宗教改革运动的序幕。<br />
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The direct trigger for the Reformation movement was Pope Leo X's sending of the Dominican friar Thacher to Germany in 1517 to sell atonement tickets under the guise of building St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which aroused such disgust that Martin Luther is said to have opened the Reformation movement by posting a "95 Theses" against the sale of atonement tickets in front of the Wittenberg church on October 31 of the same year.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:23, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The direct trigger for the Reformation movement was Pope Leo X's sending of the Dominican friar Thacher to Germany in 1517 to sell atonement tickets under the guise of building St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which aroused such disgust that Martin Luther is said to have opened the Reformation movement by posting a "95 Theses" against the sale of atonement tickets in front of the Wittenberg Church on October 31 of the same year.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
1.佛教是中国人得主要信仰之一，它相信轮回，认为有生命得东西会一直在六道中循环。佛教得一些教义包含着丰富得辩证思维内容，同时它给人们带来了新视野和新文体，因此，佛教是中国历史上灿烂辉煌得文化遗产之一。<br />
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Buddhism is one of the chief beliefs of Chinese people. And it believes in samsara, which means that living beings are always circling around the six spheres. The doctrines of Buddhism contains abundant dialectical thoughts in thinking mode, and it brings us a new vision and a literary style. Therefore, Buddhism is one of the splendid and magnificent cultural heritages in Chinese history.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:16, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道家思想的核心是“道”，老子用“道”来说明宇宙万物的产生和演变，认为人们在思想和行为上都要遵循“道”的规律，一切都要顺其自然。<br />
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The “Tao”, as the core of Taoism, was applied by Laozi to explain the origin and evolution of universe. Laozi maintained that the law of the “Tao” should be applied to guide people’s thinking as well as behavior, and everything should be in accordance with the nature.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:16, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.佛教、基督教、伊斯兰教，都是外来的宗教，中国都容纳了这些外来的不同文化。而且还主动走出去学习，吸纳不同地不同名族的异质文化。<br />
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Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, were foreign religions, and accommodated by Chinese cultures. Furthermore, Chinese take the initiative to go out to learn and absorb in cultural heterogeneity of different regions and different ethnic.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:16, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.儒家思想的核心是“仁”，主张仁爱之心是处理人际关系的有效方法。孟子认为统治者应爱护人民，保障人民权利。荀子强调社会秩序和个人的努力。作为中国古代传统思想的主要流派，儒家思想对中国人的思想观念特别是价值观念有着极其深远的影响。<br />
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The core of Confucianism is benevolence, which maintains that the effective way to harmonize interpersonal relationship is benevolence. Mencius advocated that the rulers should love people and guarantee people’s rights. Xunzi laid emphasis on social order and individual effort. As the main school of the traditional Chinese thinking in ancient times, Confucianism has an extremely far-reaching influence on Chinese ideology,values in particular.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:16, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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1.佛教发源于印度，其後能在中国弘传生根，便是通过经典的翻译。从东汉末年到唐代中叶，译经事业由初创到隆盛，历八百年之久。中国佛教译经事业的历时久远，可说是世界文化史上首屈一指的大业，而所译经论卷帙的庞复，诚为世界文化的瑰宝。<br />
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Buddhism originated in India, and later took root in China through the translation of the classics. From the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the translation of scriptures lasted for 800 years from its inception to its flourishing. The long history of Chinese Buddhist sutra translation is one of the greatest in the history of world culture, and the volume of sutras translated is a treasure of world culture.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:41, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。<br />
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After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:41, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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The development of Islam from a regional Arab mono-ethnic religion to a world-wide multi-ethnic religion is the result of the widespread spread of the Arab Islamic countries through continuous foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the sending of missionaries to various parts of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:41, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。<br />
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Christianity is generally believed to derive its basic doctrines from the Bible. The historical Church has given many concise summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in the form of creeds, creeds, confessions, etc., which are also regarded as the source of doctrine by scholars studying doctrine today.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:41, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
Buddhism spread to all parts of Asia in two ways: first to Sri Lanka in the south, and then to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries from Sri Lanka. It was introduced to China through the Pamir Plateau in the north, and then to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries from China.<br />
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2. 道教在中国发展的几千年来,形成了自己特有的文化.道教文化极其高雅,极其通俗。亦其中一部分已演化为民间世俗，成为劳动群众精神生活的组成部分。<br />
With the development of Taoism in China for thousands of years, it has formed its own unique culture, which is extremely elegant and popular. Some of them have evolved into folk customs and become part of the spiritual life of the working people.<br />
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Taoism has developed its own unique culture in China for thousands of years. Taoism culture is extremely elegant and popular. Part of it has evolved into folk and secular, becoming a part of the spiritual life of the working people.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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3. 伊斯兰教的兴起，是阿拉伯半岛各部落要求改变社会经济状况和实现政治统一的反映。穆罕默德顺应了历史发展的需要，创传伊斯兰教，在宗教革命的旗帜下，领导了阿拉伯的社会变革运动，统一了阿拉伯半岛。<br />
The rise of Islam is a reflection of the demands of various tribes in the Arabian Peninsula to change their social and economic conditions and achieve political unity. Muhammad complied with the needs of historical development, created and spread Islam. Under the banner of religious revolution, he led the Arab social change movement and unified the Arabian Peninsula.<br />
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The rise of Islam is a reflection of the demands of various tribes in the Arabian Peninsula to change their socio-economic conditions and achieve political unity. Muhammad conformed to the needs of historical development, created Islam, led the Arab social transformation movement under the banner of religious revolution, and unified the Arabian Peninsula.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4. 基督宗教发端于公元1世纪罗马帝国统治下巴勒斯坦地区的犹太团体。1至5世纪是基督宗教创立并从以色列传向希腊罗马文化区域的时期，是基督宗教发展的早期阶段，是使徒和早期教父建立基督宗教基本教义和神学学说的时期。这一时期常被称为基督宗教发展上的第一个阶段。<br />
Christianity originated in the Jewish community in Palestine under the rule of Roman Empire in the first century. From the 1st to the 5th century, Christianity was founded and spread from Israel to the Greek and Roman cultural areas. It was the early stage of the development of Christianity. It was the period when the apostles and early fathers established the basic doctrines and theological theories of Christianity. This period is often called the first stage in the development of Christianity.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:25, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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1.由于传入的时间、途径、地区和民族文化、社会历史背景的不同，中国佛教形成三大系，即汉传佛教（汉语系）、藏传佛教（藏语系）和云南地区 [1] 上座部佛教（巴利语系）。<br />
As a result of differences in time, route, region, ethnic culture, and socio-historical background, Chinese Buddhism has formed three major lineages, namely, Han Buddhism (Chinese), Tibetan Buddhism (Tibetan), and Shangban Buddhism (Pali) in Yunnan.<br />
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As a result of differences in time, routes, region, ethnic culture, and socio-historical background, Chinese Buddhism has formed three major lineages, namely, Han Buddhism (Chinese), Tibetan Buddhism (Tibetan), and Shangban Buddhism (Pali) in Yunnan.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:37, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。道教认为道可以修得，修炼的目的是得道成仙，最终目标是形神俱妙，与道合真。<br />
Taoism inherits and develops the ideas of the pre-Qin Taoists, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, from which the highest classics, the highest Taoist techniques and the highest gods evolve, building a huge system of classical Taoism and immortality. Taoism believes that Tao can be cultivated, and that the purpose of cultivation is to attain immortality, with the ultimate goal of having both form and spirit, and being in harmony with Tao.<br />
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3.全世界穆斯林约有16亿人口（2018年），占同期世界人口总数的23.4％。在亚非40多个伊斯兰国家中，穆斯林占全国总人口的大多数。一些国家将伊斯兰教定为国教。<br />
There are approximately 1.6 billion Muslims in the world (2018), representing 23.4% of the world's population over the same period. In more than 40 Islamic countries in Asia and Africa, Muslims make up the majority of the total population. Some countries have made Islam the state religion.<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，上帝的三位一体：基督教作为一神论的特色是基督教的神是“三位一体”的神，同一个上帝具有三个位格：圣父、圣子和圣灵。<br />
Christianity generally holds that there is a trinity of God: Christianity as monotheism is characterized by the fact that the Christian God is a "triune" God, and that the same God has three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:43, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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1.隋唐佛教因有帝王的护持，得以迅速发展，其兴盛繁荣表现在许多方面，如译经、著述、艺术等，尤其中国化佛教宗派的成立，更是重要的特色之一。<br />
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Buddhist in Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty developed rapidly with support of emperors. Its prosperity was manifested in many ways, including scriptures, writings and art. The establishment of Chinese Buddhist sects in particular was one of the important features.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:28, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br />
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Before the Liberation, Daoism was full of strong feudalism. So it became a major task for Taoism in the new China to launch patriotic education to Taoists, reform the feudal economy and abolish the feudal remnants in Taoism and draw a clear line with the reactionary Huidao Sect.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:28, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《古兰经》是穆斯林最重要的典籍，对猪肉的禁令就来自于《古兰经》的第五章，这一章规定了穆斯林的饮食戒律，尤其是第三节，明确规定死物，血液，猪肉和各种不是按照伊斯兰教的方式宰杀的动物，穆斯林都不能吃。<br />
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The Koran is the most important book for Muslims. And the prohibition on pork originates from the fifth chapter of this book, which sets out the dietary commandments for Muslims, especially the third verse. It clearly states that Muslims mustn’t eat any dead animals, blood, pork and all kinds of animals that are not slaughtered in the Islamic way.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:28, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.广义的基督教是指凡是信奉耶稣基督为救世主的所有教派，即包括了罗马公教、正教、新教三大派及其他一些小教派在内。<br />
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In a broad sense, Christianity refers to all denominations which believe in Jesus Christ as their Savior, including the three major denominations-- Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant, and some other small ones.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:28, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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1.宗教是人类社会发展到一定历史阶段出现的一种文化现象，属于社会特殊意识形态。<br />
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1.Religion is a kind of cultural phenomenon that appears when human society develops to a certain historical stage, and it is a special social ideology.<br />
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1. Religion is a kind of cultural phenomenon in the development of human society at a certain historical stage, which belongs to the special ideology of society.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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Religion is a kind of cultural phenomenon in the development of human society at a certain historical stage, belonging to a special ideology of society.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:21, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.伊斯兰教是世界性的宗教之一，与佛教、基督教并称为世界三大宗教。伊斯兰系阿拉伯语音译，原意为“顺从”“和平”。信奉伊斯兰教的人统称为“穆斯林”(意为“顺从者”)。<br />
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2.Islam is one of three major religions in the world together with Buddhism and Christianity.It is an Arabic word meaning "obedience" and "peace". People who have a religious belief of Islam are called "Muslims" (meaning "obedient").<br />
2. Islam, together with Buddhism and Christianity, is one of the world's three major religions. Islam is transliteration of Arabic and its original meaning is "obedience" and "peace". People who believe in Islam are collectively referred to as "Muslims" (meaning "followers").--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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3.天主教强调罪与罚，天堂与地狱；基督教强调因信称义，和神之间的亲密关系，信奉耶稣。<br />
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3.Catholicism emphasizes sins and punishment,heaven and hell,while Christianism emphasizes honesty,intergrity,affinity of god ,and the firm belief of Jesus.<br />
3. Catholicism emphasizes sin and punishment, heaven and hell; Christianity underlines righteousness by faith, close relationship with God, and believes in Jesus.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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4.虽然学者们对确切的日期争论不休，但许多人都认为，释迦牟尼可能出生于公元前490年左右的印度北部（印度年表将其出生时间定为公元前448年）。他的父母属于刹帝利种姓，他的父亲是一位受人尊敬的首领。他虽然比较富有，但从小就接触到了人间疾苦。<br />
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4.While scholars debate the exact date, many agree that Siddhartha Gautama is probably born around 490 BCE in northern India (Indian chronology dates his birth to 448 BCE). His parents belong to the Shakya caste, and his father is a respected head of the community. Although he is relatively wealthy, Gautama is exposed to human suffering from an early age.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:13, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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4. Although scholars have been arguing about the exact date, many people believe that Sakyamuni may have been born in northern India around 490 B.C. (the Indian chronology sets his date of birth as 448 BC). His parents belonged to the shatiri caste, and his father was a respected leader. Although he is relatively rich, he has been exposed to human suffering since childhood.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
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1.Buddhism spread to all parts of Asia in two ways: first to Sri Lanka in the south, and then to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries from Sri Lanka. It was introduced to China through the Pamir Plateau in the north, and then to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries from China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.作为一种宗教实体，道教不仅有其独特的经典教义、神仙信仰和仪式活动，而且还有其宗教传承、教团组织、科戒制度、宗教活动场所。<br />
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2.As a religious entity, Taoism not only has its unique classic doctrines, fairy beliefs and ritual activities, but also its religious inheritance, religious group organization, discipline system, and religious activities venues.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuanngling<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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3.Islam developed from a single ethnic religion in The Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.1至5世纪是基督宗教创立并从以色列传向希腊罗马文化区域的时期，是基督宗教发展的早期阶段，是使徒和早期教父建立基督宗教基本教义和神学学说的时期。<br />
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4.The first to the fifth centuries were the period in which Christianity was founded and spread from Israel to the Greco-Roman cultural regions. It was the early stage in the development of Christianity and the period in which the apostles and early fathers established the basic doctrines and theology of Christianity.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 06:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1. 峨眉山高出五岳、秀甲天下，山势雄伟、气象万千，素有“一山有四季，十里不同天”之妙喻。集自然风光与佛教文化为一体，著名的旅游胜地和佛教名山，1996年12月6日被列入《世界文化与自然遗产名录》。<br />
Higher than any of the five great mountains of China, the awe-inspiring, majestic and picturesque Mount Emei is the perfect place to experience all four seasons in one day. Because of its natural beauty and Buddhist cultural heritage, Mount Emei, a tourist destination and a noteworthy Buddhist mountain, was listed as one of UNESCO’s World Natural and Cultural Heritages sites on Dec.6, 1996.<br />
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2. 穆罕默德是一位杰出的历史人物。生于麦加城古莱什部落哈希姆家族。他自幼父母双亡，由祖父和伯父抚养。早年失学替人放牧，12岁时跟随伯父及商队，曾到叙利亚、巴勒斯坦和地中海东岸一带经商，广泛接触和目睹了阿拉伯半岛和叙利亚地区的社会状况，了解到半岛原始宗教、犹太教、基督教的情况，为他后来的传教活动提供了大量社会知识和宗教素材。<br />
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Muhammad is an outstanding historical figure. Born into the Hashemite family of the Quraysh tribe in the city of Mecca , he was raised by his grandfather and uncle because his parents died when he was young . In his early years, he dropped out of school to graze for someone.At the age of 12, he followed his uncle and a caravan of merchants to Syria, Palestine and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where he had extensive contact with and witnessed the social conditions of the Arabian Peninsula and Syria, and learned about the primitive religions of the Peninsula, Judaism and Christianity, which provided him with a great deal of social knowledge and religious materials for his later missionary activities.<br />
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3. 天主教是基督教的一个派别，和东正教、新教并称基督教三大教派。亦称“公教”，有时也被称为“旧教”以区分于基督教的新教。其领导中心设在梵蒂冈，首脑是教皇，掌握世界各地的传教事业，是大部分的天主教徒的精神领袖。<br />
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Catholicism is one of the three major Christian denominations, along with the Orthodox and Protestant. It is also known as the "Catholic Church" and sometimes as the "Old Church" in order to be distinguished from Protestant Christianity. Its leadership is centered in the Vatican and is headed by the Pope, who is in charge of missionary work around the world and is the spiritual leader of most Catholics.<br />
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4.新中国成立后，广大道教徒拥护社会主义制度，拥护共产党的领导。他们自发成立学习小组，开展爱国主义、社会主义和时事政治的学习，发表《反帝爱国宣言》，开展捐献运动支援抗美援朝。<br />
After the founding of People’s Republic of China,the majority of Taoists embraced the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party. They set up study groups on their own initiative, conducted studies on the doctrine of patriotism and socialism and current affairs and politics, issued the Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Manifesto, and carried out donation campaigns to support the Korean War.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:58, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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<math>Insert formula here</math><br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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1.佛教信徒依照悉达多所悟到修行方法，发现生命和宇宙的真相，最终超越生死和苦、断尽一切烦恼，得到究竟解脱。<br />
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Based on Siddhartha's enlightenment, Buddhist believers hope to discover the truth of life and the universe, and finally be free from all the troubles brought by life and death. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:07, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Among the five major religions, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also regarded as China's native religion.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:07, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese among the five major religions, so it is also known as the native religion.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:27, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Islam is the fruit of the wide spread of Islamic countries through the continuous aggression and expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries all over the world. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:07, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The widespread Islam results from the efforts of Islamic countries in terms of continuous aggression and expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries all over the world.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:04, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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4.耶稣为救赎人类，被钉十字架而死，故尊十字架为信仰的标记。<br />
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Jesus died by crucifixion for the redemption of mankind, so Christians honored the cross as a sign of faith.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:07, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.纵观日本佛教，教理上多源自中国宗派而发展，然在修行实践上则趋于易行及通俗化，二十世纪后，日本佛教各大宗派更各自发展法会祝祷、办学教育、社会慈善、学术研究等，佛教事业欣欣向荣，尤以佛学研究堪称代表。<br />
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Historically, the doctrines of Japanese Buddhism evolved from Han Buddhism and its practice turned to be easier and more secular. Since 20th century, Buddhist schools in Japan have greatly developed in rituals, education, charity, academic research, etc. Buddhism, particularly in Buddhist studies, is flourishing in the country.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.道教发源于中国本土，她以“道”作为最高信仰：道在有无之先，是生成宇宙万物的本体，但道之本身是窈冥难测的。<br />
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Taoism, which originated in China, regards Tao as its supreme belief. Taoists believe that Tao is the first thing that came into being, and the essence that generated all things in the universe, but Tao itself is mysterious and unpredictable.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.阿拉伯语 "伊斯兰教 "的意思是自愿承认并积极服从唯一的真主安拉的指导命令。凡是以这种方式行事的人都被称为穆斯林，即承认并服从唯一的真主的人。<br />
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The Arabic word islam means the willing recognition of and active submission to the guiding command of the One God, Allah. Whoever acts in this manner is called a muslim, one who acknowledges and submits to the sole, unique God.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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4.基督教的经典著作《圣经》也以其博大精深的思想内涵和丰富多彩的叙事模式，为西方艺术提供了取之不尽的精神资源。<br />
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The Bible, the classic work of Christianity, has provided inexhaustible spiritual resources for Western art with its profound ideological connotations and colorful narrative patterns.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
1. 结束南北分裂局面而开展的隋唐，是中国历史上政治、经济、文化最强盛的朝代，也是中国佛教史上经典翻译、宗派竞立的巅峰时期，其影响不仅深入中国各阶层，而且远播至韩国(高丽、百济、新罗)、日本、越南，开启各国佛教的灿烂新页。<br />
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1. The Sui and Tang dynasties, which ended the division between the north and the south, were the most politically, economically and culturally powerful dynasties in Chinese history, also the peak period of classical translations and sects in the history of Chinese Buddhism, whose influence spread not only to all classes in China, but also to Korea (Koguryo, Silla and Paekche), Japan and Vietnam, opening a new page of Buddhism development in all countries.<br />
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2. 隋唐至北宋时期，由于统治阶级的尊崇，道教极为兴盛，社会影响极大，道教的哲学、养生术、符咒法、科仪规章也更为完善。<br />
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2. From the Sui and Tang dynasties to the Northern Song dynasties, Taoism flourished due to the respect of the ruling class, which influenced the society a lot. Besides, its philosophy, health preservation, spell and regulations were further implemented. <br />
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3. 伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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3. Islam was developed from a mono-ethnic Arab religion to a world-wide multi-ethnic religion, due to the widespread spread of Islam in Arab countries through continuous expansion, business, cultural exchanges, and the sending of missionaries to various parts of the world.<br />
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4. 基督教新教主要宗派包括信义宗、长老宗、圣公宗、浸礼宗、公理宗、卫斯理宗等。除这些较大派别外，新教还分化为众多的小教派和教会团体。<br />
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4. The main denominations of Protestant Christianity include Lutheranism, Presbyterianism, Anglicanism, Baptism, Congregationalism, Wesleyanism, and so on. In addition to these large denominations, Protestantism is also divided into numerous smaller denominations and church groups.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
1.瑜伽行派传入中国是唐玄奘在大乘佛教时期入印求法，归国后创建了唯实宗，其思想根基主要来源于印度瑜伽行派。<br />
The introduction of the Yoga to China was when Xuanzang entered India to seek Dharma during the Mahayana Buddhism period. After returning to China, he founded the Wei Shi Sect. Its ideological foundation mainly comes from the Indian Yoga.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“无为”是不妄为，不乱来的意思。是说统治者行为要顺应自然、社会发展的规律，并按照规律去定相应的法律、制度、不轻易变更，人们在这样的法律、制度下尽情发挥自己的聪明才干，努力去做。<br />
"Effortless action" means not to act rashly and not to mess around. It means that the behavior of the ruler should conform to the laws of nature and social development, and the corresponding laws and systems should be determined in accordance with the laws and not easily changed. People under such laws and systems can give full play to their talents and work hard.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教认为《古兰经》是安拉“神圣的语言”，是一部“永久法典”。它是伊斯兰教信仰和教义的最高准则，是伊斯兰教法的渊源和立法的首要依据，是穆斯林社会生活、宗教生活和道德行为的准绳，也是伊斯兰教各学科和各派别学说赖以建立的理论基础。<br />
Islam believes that the "Kuran" is the "sacred language" of Allah and a "permanent code." It is the highest standard of Islamic beliefs and teachings, the origin of Islamic law and the primary basis for legislation, the criterion of Muslim social life, religious life and moral behavior, and the theoretical basis on which the various disciplines and sects of Islam rely.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.路德派在教义上主要强调因信称义，认为人要得到上帝的拯救，不在于遵守教会的规条，而在于对上帝的信心；不在于个人的功德或善行，而在于上帝给人的恩赐。<br />
The Lutheran doctrine mainly emphasizes justification by faith, and believes that people's salvation from God does not lie in observing the rules of the church, but in faith in God; it does not lie in personal merit or good deeds, but in the gift that God gives to people.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
1.佛教的宇宙观是缘起论，即它认为--切事物都是因缘合和而起的。就认识问题而言，佛教认为，认识的成立必须具备三个因素:认识的器官或机能(根)、客观的对象(境)和主观的认识。<br />
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Buddhism's world outlook is the theory of origin, that is, it believes that everything is the cause and effect.In terms of cognition, Buddhism believes that there must be three factors for the establishment of cognition: the organ or function of cognition (root), objective object (context) and subjective cognition.<br />
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2.伊斯兰国家：是指在全国总人口中大部分人都信奉伊斯兰教的国家。据有关资料介绍，在全世界180多个国家中，有69个伊斯兰国家，占全世界国家总数三分之一以上。<br />
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A country in which the majority of the population of the country believes in Islam.According to relevant information, there are 69 Islamic countries out of more than 180 countries in the world, accounting for more than one third of the total number of countries in the world.<br />
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Islamic countries refer to countries in which the majority of the population believe in Islam. According to relevant data, there are 69 Islamic countries out of 180 plus countries in the world, accounting for more than one third of the total number around the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.基督教信仰的对象为上帝，上帝(天主)是基督教的最高神。基督教宣称上帝是天地的主宰，是天地万物的唯一创造者。上帝虽然只有一个，但包括圣父、圣子、圣灵三个位格，三位一体，同受拜敬。<br />
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The object of a Christian belief is God, the supreme God of Christianity.Christianity claims that God is the master of heaven and earth and the sole creator of all things.Although God has only one, it includes the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.<br />
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4.道教是中国土生土长的宗教，它的理论广泛容纳了中国古代社会的宗教意识和学术思想，是古代宗教、民间巫术、神仙方术、阴阳五行及道家思想等汇聚、融合的产物，带着鲜明的中国特色。<br />
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Taoism is a religion born and bred in China . Its theory widely contains the religious consciousness and academic thought of ancient Chinese society . It is the product of the convergence and fusion of ancient religion, folk witchcraft, celestial magic, yin and yang, five elements and Taoist thought.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:53, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、佛教是一种约有三亿人信仰的世界性宗教。这个词来自于'菩堤'，意思是'觉悟' 。佛教大约起源于2500年前，是悉达多乔达摩(称为佛陀)在35岁时觉悟后所发起的。<br />
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Buddhism is a religion to about 300 million people around the world. The word comes from 'budhi', 'to awaken'. It originates from about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama, known as the Buddha, was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of 35.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:23, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。<br />
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Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:23, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、“伊斯兰”是阿拉伯语音译，本意为“顺服”。从宗教意义上讲，“伊斯兰”是指一种顺服惟一的主宰——安拉的旨意和戒律的宗教。其宗教徒称为“穆斯林”，意为顺服安拉意志的人。<br />
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"Islam" is Arabic transliteration, intended for the" obedience". From the religious sense," Islam" refers to a kind of obedience -- only to dominate the will of Allah and the precepts of religion. Its religious believers are known as" Muslim", meaning to the will of allah. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:23, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、基督教根源于犹太教，公元1世纪中叶耶稣创立。135年从犹太教中分裂出来成为独立的宗教。早期基督教曾受到罗马皇帝的残酷迫害和镇压。<br />
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Christianity is rooted in Judaism and founded by Jesus in the middle of 1st century. And it split from Judaism as an independent religion in 135 years. Early Christianity had been subjected to cruel persecution and repression of Roman emperors.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:23, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Christianity is rooted in Judaism and founded by Jesus in the middle of 1st century. And it was split from Judaism as an independent religion in 135. Early Christianity had been subjected to cruel persecution and repression of Roman emperors.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
佛教与基督教、伊斯兰教并称的世界三大宗教之一。公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼创建于古印度。以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
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Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam are the world's three major religions. From the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC, Shakyamuni was founded in ancient India. Since then, it has been widely spread in Asia and around the world, and has had a significant impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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隋唐至北宋时期，由于统治阶级的尊崇，道教极为兴盛，社会影响极大，道教的哲学、养生术、符咒法、科仪规章也更为完善。<br />
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From the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Northern Song Dynasty, due to the respect of the ruling class, Taoism was extremely prosperous and had a great social influence. Taoism's philosophy, health-preserving techniques, spells, and ritual regulations were also more perfect. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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阿拉伯地区日益加剧的社会危机，外族的不断入侵，促进了阿拉伯人的觉醒，社会各阶级都在寻求出路。<br />
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The increasing social crisis in the Arab region and the constant invasion of foreigners have promoted the awakening of Arabs, and all classes of society are seeking a way out. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于历史原因，在华人中长期以来都习惯只把新教称为基督教。大陆的新教教会也从不称自己为新教，而只称基督教或耶稣教，而将罗马公教称为天主教，正教称为东正教。<br />
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Due to historical reasons, it has long been accustomed to call Protestantism only Christianity among Chinese. The Protestant churches on the mainland never call themselves Protestant, but only Christianity or Jesus, and the Roman Catholic Church is called Catholicism, and the Orthodox Church is called Eastern Orthodox. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
1. 公元313年，罗马帝国皇帝君士坦丁一世发布“米兰敕令”，宣布基督教可与所有其他宗教同享自由，不受歧视。从此基督教成为官方认可的合法宗教。<br />
In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine I issued "Edict of Milan", declared common freedom with Christianity and all other religions, without discrimination. Since then, Christianity became an official recognition of the legitimate religion. <br />
2. l6 世纪，随着西欧民族国家和市民阶级的兴起，爆发了反对罗马教皇封建统治的宗教改革运动，后陆续分化出脱离天主教会的一些新宗派，称为“新教”。所以，基督教是天主教、东正教和新教的总称。<br />
In the 16 century, with the rise of Western European nation-state and public class, Rome, the Reformation movement broke out against rule of the Pope. After these, some of the new sect, known as the "Protestant", were split from the Catholic Church. So, Christianity is general of Catholic, Orthodox and Protestan.<br />
3. 佛教是一种约有三亿人信仰的世界性宗教。这个词来自于'菩堤’，意思是'觉悟’。佛教大约起源于2500年前，是悉达多乔达摩(称为佛陀)在35岁时觉悟后所发起的<br />
Buddhism is a religion to about 300 million people around the world. The word comes from '"budhi', 'to awaken'. It has its origins about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama, known as the Buddha, was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of35.<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。<br />
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The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia can be roughly divided into two routes: the south route, to Sri Lanka first, then from Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries.<br />
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2.道教界积极开展公益慈善活动，在长江流域特大洪水、汶川地震等重大灾难发生后，都及时组织祈福法会和捐款捐物活动，以道教特有方式为救灾工作作出贡献。<br />
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Taoism has actively carried out public welfare and charity activities. After the catastrophic floods in the Yangtze River basin and the Wenchuan earthquake, Taoism organized prayer meetings and donation activities in a timely manner, contributing to the relief work in a unique Daoist way.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Islam developed from a single ethnic religion in The Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the product of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.<br />
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4.基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括。<br />
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Christianity is generally believed to originate its basic teachings from the Bible. The church in history has made many essential summaries of the basic tenets of Christianity in various forms, such as creed and epistle.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:35, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
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Buddhism spread to all parts of Asia in two ways: first to Sri Lanka in the south, and then to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries from Sri Lanka. It was introduced to China through the Pamir Plateau in the north, and then to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries from China.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 09:20, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion originated in China and founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as local religion. Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China, and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of the people's Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Chinese Taoism gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 09:20, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教的兴起，是阿拉伯半岛各部落要求改变社会经济状况和实现政治统一的反映。穆罕默德顺应了历史发展的需要，创传伊斯兰教，在宗教革命的旗帜下，领导了阿拉伯的社会变革运动，统一了阿拉伯半岛。<br />
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The birth of Islam is a reflection of the demands of various tribes in the Arabian Peninsula to change their social and economic conditions and achieve political unity. Muhammad complied with the needs of historical development, created and spread Islam. Under the banner of religious revolution, he led the Arab social change movement and unified the Arabian Peninsula.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 09:20, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督宗教是一个一神论的宗教，指所有相信主耶稣基督为救主的教会。虽然耶稣基督所建立的是一个合一的基督教会,但基督教在历史进程中却分化为许多派别，主要有天主教、东正教、新教三大传统教派。<br />
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Christianity is a monotheistic religion, which refers to all the churches that believe in the Lord Jesus Christ as the Savior. Although the church established by Jesus Christ is a United Christian Church, Christianity has been divided into many factions in the historical process, including three traditional sects, namely Catholicism, Orthodox Church and Protestantism.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 09:20, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br />
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After the spread of Buddhism to every part of the world, due to the locally social, political and cultural influence, its form and content have changed accordingly, thus giving birth to many sects.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After its spreading to other regions, forms and contents saw changes and various sects were formed. The reason is that Buddhism was influenced by different local social, political and cultural environments. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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明清两代，随着中国封建社会进入晚期，道教发展陷入停滞僵化。近代中国道教承明清余绪，除个别时期，一直处于低谷。<br />
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In the Ming and Qing dynasties, with the entering of the late period of feudal society in China, the development of Taoism stagnated and ossified. Taoism in modern China, inheriting fruit in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, except for a few periods, has been at a low ebb.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Developing from a single ethnic religion in the Arab region, Islam finally became a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。<br />
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It is generally believed in Christianity that its basic teachings derived from the ''Bible''. The church in history has made many essential summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed and epistles, which are also regarded as the source of the doctrines by scholars studying the doctrines today.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is generally believed in Christianity that its basic teachings derived from the ''Bible''. The churches in history have made many summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed and epistles, which are also regarded as the source of the doctrines studyed today.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
1.与世界其他主要宗教不同的是，佛教是唯一基于全人类所共知的苦难而产生发展起来的。佛教使哲学和宗教思想发生了根本转变。<br />
Uniquely among the great world religions, Buddhism is rooted only in the universal experience of suffering known to all human beings. Buddhism have revolutionized philosophical and religious thought.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.儒道两家各有偏重又相互补充，相反相成地融合为共同的和谐美的思想。<br />
Confucianism and Daoism oppose and complement and fuse into the thought of beauty of harmony.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教是世界性的宗教之一，与佛教、基督教并称为世界三大宗教。截至到2009年底，世界人口约68亿人，穆斯林总人数是15.7亿，分布在204个国家和地区，占全世界的百分之二十三。<br />
Islam is one of the world’s religious, with Buddhism and Christianity as the three major religions in the world. By the end of 2009, the world population of 6 billion 800 million people, the total number of Muslims was 1 million 570 million, distributed in 204 countries and regions, accounting for twenty-three percent of the world.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教对西方文明产生了非常大的影响，自由、平等、博爱、为中心的人文主义传统，使得“生而平等”观点深入人心，成为《独立宣言》《人权宣言》的核心，成为后来西方民主政治的一种长远的精神推动力。<br />
Christianity had a very big impact to Western civilization. Humanist tradition, as the center of freedom, equality, and fraternity, enjoyed “born equal” popular support, became heart of “Declaration of Independence,” “Declaration of Human Rights”, and a long-term spiritual driving force of the Western democratic. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
religio一语，最原始之意义是指对超自然事物之畏怖、不安等感情而言，其后则有成为感情对象的超自然之事物，及成为感情外在表现的仪礼之意，由之更进而指团体性与组织性之信仰、教义、仪礼之体系。<br />
The original meaning of word “religio” is that the feelings such as fear and unstable towards supernatural things, then it refers to supernatural things with feelings, and etiquette which is feeling appear to be, and further refers to the system of faith, tenet, and etiquette in groups and organizations.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:56, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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耶稣出来传道，宣讲天国的福音，劝人悔改，转离恶行。他的教训和所行的神迹，在民众中得到极大的回应。<br />
Jesus preached the gospel of heaven, persuading people to repent and turning away from deviltry. His lessons and miracles were greatly responded to by the people.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:56, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
The development of Islam from the religion of a single nation in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world is the result of the extensive spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, sending missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:56, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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自19世纪下半叶，跨越传统教派的福音派教会异军突起，形成巨大影响。<br />
Since the second half of the 19th century, evangelical churches, which span traditional sects, have sprung up and formed a great influence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:56, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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1.佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br />
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After Buddhism spread to each region, due to local social, political, and cultural influences, there were corresponding changes in form and content, resulting in the formation of many sects.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Buddhism spread to every region, due to the influence of local society, politics, and culture, the form and content have changed accordingly, forming many sects.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After Buddhism spread to every region, due to the influence of local social and political culture, its form and content changed accordingly, and many sects formed--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 14:31, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the party and government’s religious policies in the new era, Taoism in China has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and government's new religious policy, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look, making positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the unification of the motherland, and world peace.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Islam has developed from a regional single-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world. It is widely spread by Arab Islamic countries through continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and missions to the world. the result of.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.虽然耶稣基督所建立的是一个合一的基督教会,但基督教在历史进程中却分化为许多派别，2013年全世界范围当中有超过一万个基督教派，主流的派别主要有天主教、基督新教、东正教三大传统教派，以及一些在信仰人数上虽不如传统教派多，但也有了相当的规模的非传统教派，如:摩门教。<br />
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Although Jesus Christ established a united Christian church, Christianity has divided into many sects in the course of history. In 2013, there were more than 10,000 Christian sects worldwide. The mainstream sects are mainly Catholicism, Protestantism, The three traditional sects of Eastern Orthodox Church, and some non-traditional sects that are not as large as traditional sects in the number of believers, such as Mormonism.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Jesus Christ established a unified Christian Church, Christianity has been divided into many denominations over the course of history; in 2013 there were more than 10,000 Christian denominations worldwide, with the dominant denominations being the three traditional denominations of Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy, as well as some non-traditional denominations that are not as numerous as the traditional denominations, but have grown in size, such as Mormonism. --[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 目前佛教已传播到世界各大洲。但主要仍集中在东亚和东南亚一带，这个地区的佛教信徒人数远远超过其他宗教信徒。<br />
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At this moment, Buddhism has spread to all continents of the world. However, it is still concentrated in East Asia and Southeast Asia, where the number of Buddhists is far more than that of other religions. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:52, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 道教是我国土生土长的宗教，是在汉代黄老道家思想基础上，吸收古代神仙家的方术和民间巫术及鬼神信仰，于东汉末年形成的。<br />
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Taoism, a native-born religion in China, was formed at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty by absorbing the ancient alchemy, folk witchcraft and belief in ghosts and gods on the basis of Taoist thought of Huang Lao in Han Dynasty. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:52, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 伊斯兰教有着一套具有自己从教特色的体系，它在神学信仰、政治主张、经济思想、道德规范等各方面所提倡的行为规范是每一个穆斯林都必须遵守的。<br />
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Islam has a system with its own religious characteristics. Every Muslim must abide by the code of conduct it advocates in theological belief, political opinion, economic thought and moral standards. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:52, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 天主教在教会体制上遵循“圣统制”，即各地的天主教会以罗马主教为尊，受罗马教宗管理，神权事务由罗马教宗授权，在天主教会看来，罗马教宗就是上帝在世的代表，是继承了耶稣门徒的传统，上帝授权他来管理教会。<br />
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Catholicism follows the “Hierarchy” in its church system, that is, the Catholic churches everywhere respect the Bishop of Rome and are under the management of the Pope, and the theocracy affairs are authorized by the Pope. In the view of the Catholic Church, the Roman Pope is the representative of God in the world, inheriting the tradition of Jesus' disciples, and God authorized him to manage the church. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:52, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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玄奘少时家境贫困，跟着哥哥在洛阳净土寺，学习佛经。后来他从兰州出发，经河西走廊，到达瓜州，想要从那里出境，沿着我们现在所讲的“丝绸之路”去印度求法。<br />
When he was young, Xuanzang came from a poor family and followed his brother to study Buddhist sutras in The Jingtui Temple in Luoyang. Later, he set out from Lanzhou and reached Guazhou through the Hexi Corridor. He wanted to leave from there and go to India to seek dharma along the Silk Road we now speak。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 14:30, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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道教是中国的本土宗教，以历史唯物主义作为指导。道教从东汉诞生并演变，至近代大约有两千多年。<br />
Taoism is the indigenous religion of China, which was guided by historical materialism from the birth and evolution of The Eastern Han Dynasty to the modern times over two thousand years--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 14:30, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Islam<br />
伊斯兰教主要分布地区有中东和北非等地。在我国，伊斯兰教也被称之为清真教。<br />
Islam is mainly found in the Middle East and North Africa. It is also called “Qingzhen”in China。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 14:30, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Christianity<br />
基督教发源于巴勒斯坦地区犹太人社会，创始人是耶稣。基督教在人类的发展史上有着不可替代的作用，尤其是当今的西方社会，许多发达国家都以基督教文化为主导。<br />
Christianity originated from the Jewish society in Palestine, and its founder was Jesus Christ. Christianity has played an irreplaceable role in the development history of mankind, especially in today's Western society, where many developed countries are dominated by Christian culture。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 14:30, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
1. 佛教四大名山闻名遐迩，鲜为人知的是中国还有一座山——终南山，堪称佛教诸宗的祖山，大乘佛教九宗中有六宗祖庭集于此处。佛教进入中国初期，并没有宗派之分，而当佛教走入山川形胜的终南秘境，仰对峰峦、俯拾河溪，却体会出更多佛法的真味。<br />
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The four famous Buddhist mountains are well known. What is little known is that there is another mountain in China-Zhongnan Mountain, which can be called the ancestral mountain of all Buddhist sects. Six of the nine Mahayana Buddhist sects are gathered here. In the early days of Buddhism's entry into China, there was no sectarian distinction. However, when Buddhism entered the secret land of the south, where mountains and rivers prevailed, it realized more of the true flavor of Buddhism. <br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 道教深深扎根于民间，体现着百姓最朴素的信仰——衣食住行的每个诉求，都可以在道教神灵那里得以满足。在中国道教石窟中，你依然能感受到道教在中国人日常生活中的重要。<br />
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Taoism is deeply rooted in the people and embodies the most simple belief of the people-every demand for food, clothing, housing and transportation can be satisfied by Taoist gods. In the Chinese Taoist grottoes, you can still feel the importance of Taoism in the daily life of the Chinese people. <br />
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3. 清真寺是伊斯兰教进行宗教活动的中心，主要是供信徒礼拜之处。伊斯兰教，发源于阿拉伯半岛的麦加，信奉独一无二的造物主安拉，信徒被称作穆斯林。它和基督教一样，是外来的宗教。<br />
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Mosque is the center of Islamic religious activities, mainly for believers to worship. Islam, which originated in Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula, believes in the unique Creator Allah and its followers are called Muslims. Like Christianity, it is a foreign religion. <br />
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4. 以“耶稣基督”诞辰为记的圣诞节，是属于基督教的节日。这个现今世界上最大的宗教信仰，建立在一个丰满的神话体系上，在这些故事中，不仅有曲折动人的情节，还充满了爱与人情味儿。 <br />
Christmas, which is marked by the birth of Jesus Christ, is a Christian festival. The largest religious belief in the world today is based on a full myth system. In these stories, there are not only tortuous and touching plots, but also full of love and human touch. <br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.佛教中国本土化在隋唐时期已初步完成，而儒、释、道三教的合流则在两宋时期。<br />
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The localization of Buddhism in China has preliminarily finished in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, while the confluence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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The localization of Buddhism in China has preliminarily completed in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, while the confluence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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Under the guidance of religious policy published by party and government in the new era, China’s Daoism has emerged an unprecedented new look since the reform and opening-up. It made positive contribution to promoting economic development, harmonious society, national unity and world peace.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教是科学的宗教，它鼓励人们通过真科学对宇宙、世界进行认识和思考，从而使信仰更加坚固。<br />
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Islam, as a scientific religion, encourages people to understand and reflect on the universe and the world through authentic science, making the belief more stable.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Islam, as a scientific religion, encourages people to understand and reflect on the universe and the world through authentic science, thus making the belief more stable.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:03, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Islam, as a scientific religion, encourages people to understand and reflect on the universe and the world through authentic science, making their beliefs more stable.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在基督教早期阶段，教会曾实行财产共有，外界视其为一种秘密性的宗教组织。<br />
In the early stage of Christianity, the church ever implemented the policy of common ownership. However, the outside world regarded it as a secret religious organization.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
公元前6世纪至前5世纪，佛教创建于古印度。以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
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In the 6th century BC or the 5th century BC, Buddhism was founded in ancient India. Since then, it has been widely spread in Asia and around the world, and has had a significant impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.<br />
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道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br />
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Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also called the local religion.<br />
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伊斯兰教公元七世纪由麦加人穆罕默德在阿拉伯半岛上首先兴起，公元7世纪中叶自西亚、中东传入中国。<br />
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Islam first emerged on the Arabian Peninsula by Mecca, Muhammad, in the seventh century AD, and was introduced to China from West Asia and the Middle East in the middle of the seventh century.<br />
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基督教是对奉耶稣基督为救世主的各教派统称，亦称基督宗教。基督教与佛教、伊斯兰教并称三大宗教。<br />
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Christianity is the collective name for all denominations that hold Jesus Christ as the savior, also known as the Christian religion. Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam are called the three major religions.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
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The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia can be roughly divided into two routes: southward to Sri Lanka first, and from Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries. The northward spread to China via the Pamir Plateau, and then from China to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries.<br />
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2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br />
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Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new era, Taoism in China, in an unprecedented new atmosphere, has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.<br />
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3.伊斯兰教自创兴迄今已有1400多年的历史，它作为一种宗教信仰、意识形态和文化体系，传入世界各地后，与当地传统文化相互影响和融合，在不同历史条件下，对许多国家和民族的社会发展、政治结构、经济形态、文化风尚、伦理道德、生活方式等都发生了不同程度的影响。<br />
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Islam has a history of more than 1400 years since its inception. As a religious belief, ideology and cultural system, it has influenced and integrated with local traditional culture after it was introduced into various parts of the world. Under different historical conditions, it has influenced the social development, political structure, economic form, cultural fashion, ethics and morality, lifestyle of many countries and nationalities to varying degrees.<br />
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4.基督宗教各派都信奉耶稣基督为救主，都以《圣经》，又称《新旧约全书》为经典，其中《新约》各章节都相同，而《旧约》有所不同，东正教和天主教的内容比新教（基督教）要多几章。<br />
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All denominations of the Christian religion believe in Jesus Christ as their Savior, and all use the Bible, also known as the Old and New Testaments, as their classics, with all chapters of the New Testament being the same and the Old Testament being different as the Orthodox and Catholics having a few more chapters than the Protestants (Christianity).--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:09, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.佛教产生于印度,最迟于东汉明帝时期传入内地。在魏晋南北朝时期快速发展,基于佛教思想意识体系完备,中国皇帝大力支持和寺院经济基础雄厚等原因,逐渐在中国广泛流传。<br />
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Buddhism grew out of India and was introduced to the mainland at least by the reign of the Ming emperor in the Eastern Han dynasty. In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern dynasties, Buddhism developed rapidly and spread extensively and gradually in China due to complete Buddhist ideology systems, great support from Chinese emperors and strong economic fundamentals of temples.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhism, emerging in India, was introduced to the mainland at least by the reign of the Ming emperor in the Eastern Han dynasty. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and Southern and Northern dynasties, Buddhism developed rapidly. With complete Buddhist ideology systems, great support from Chinese emperors and strong economic fundamentals of temples, it began to spreading extensively in China at that time.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:12, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.经过一千多年发展,道教已经形成了系统的养生理论与操作方法,得到社会的一定认可。在养生旅游蓬勃发展的今天,道教养生旅游成为养生旅游的重要形式之一,但就目前国内道教养生旅游开发来看,多处景区对道教养生文化资源的开发还有待深入,养生旅游产品特色不足。<br />
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After more than one thousand years of development, Taoism has formed its own systematic regiment and operational methods, which obtain certain approvals from the whole society. At present, with the booming development of wellness tourism, Taoism health tourism is one of the significant forms of health tourism. However, considering from the present development of domestic health tourism, many scenic spots still have a long way to go for developing Taoist health-keeping culture for lacking of characteristics of products.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After more than one thousand years of development, Taoism has formed a system of health theory and operation methods, which has been recognized by the society. With the vigorous development of health tourism today, Taoist health tourism has become one of the important forms of health tourism. However, as far as the development of domestic Taoist health tourism is concerned, the tapping of Taoist health culture resources in many scenic spots remains to be deepened, and the characteristics of health tourism products are insufficient.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.伊斯兰教自唐朝传入中国,到明清时完成了中国化进程,形成了回族这一特殊的民族。<br />
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Islam was introduced to China from the Tang dynasty and completed its process of Sinicization in the Ming and Qing dynasties, forming the Hui, such a special ethnic group.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在世界基督教的历史中,依托于欧洲文明的西方基督教成为基督教史的主流,具有同样深厚渊源的东方基督教却在历史长河中湮没不闻。<br />
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In the world history of Christianity, the western Christianity based on European civilizations has become the mainstream of the history of Christianity while the eastern Christianity possessing the same profound origin has disappeared in the history.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
1.佛教于公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼创建于古印度，以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br />
<br />
Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama in ancient India between the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. It spread widely throughout Asia and the rest of the world, and had a significant impact on the socio-political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Buddhism was founded in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC by Siddhartha Gautama. After that, it spread widely in Asia and all over the world, and had a significant impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.道教是一种多神教，沿袭了中国古代对于日月、星辰、河海山岳以及祖先亡灵都奉祖的信仰习惯，形成了一个包括天神、地祗和人鬼的复杂的神灵系统。<br />
<br />
Taoism is a polytheistic religion, inheriting the ancient Chinese belief in the sun, moon, stars, rivers, oceans and mountains, as well as the spirits of ancestors and the dead, and has formed a complex system of gods and spirits, including the gods of heaven, earth, humans and ghosts.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
<br />
The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Islam has developed from a regional single-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world. It is widely spread by Arab Islamic countries through continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and missions to the world. the result of.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督教文化是一种以基督教为其存在基础和凝聚精神的文化形态，包括其崇拜上帝和耶稣基督的宗教信仰体系，以及相关的精神价值和道德伦理观念。<br />
<br />
Christian culture is a cultural form that has Christianity as its foundation and unifying spirit, including its religious belief system of worshipping God and Jesus Christ, as well as the related spiritual values and moral and ethical concepts.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Christian culture is a cultural form that takes Christianity as its basis of existence and a cohesive spirit, including its religious belief system of worshiping God and Jesus Christ, as well as related spiritual values and moral and ethical concepts.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1.佛教向亚洲各地传播，大致可分为两条路线：南向最先传入斯里兰卡，又由斯里兰卡传入缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨、老挝等国。北传经帕米尔高原传入中国，再由中国传入朝鲜、日本、越南等国。<br />
<br />
The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia can be roughly divided into two routes: in the south to Sri Lanka first, and from Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries. North spread through the Pamir plateau into China, and then from China into Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries.<br />
<br />
The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia can be roughly divided into two routes: in the south to Sri Lanka first, and from Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries. In the north way, it was spread through the Pamir plateau into China, and then from China into Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other countries.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br />
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Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as the native religion. Taoism had a profound influence on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.<br />
<br />
3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
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Islam developed from a single ethnic religion in The Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.<br />
<br />
4.到了476年，罗马帝国在内部的矛盾和外族的入侵下分裂为以意大利的罗马城为中心的西罗马和以君士坦丁堡为首都的东罗马。随着东西罗马的分裂，基督宗教也开始分裂为罗马天主教和东正教。<br />
<br />
In 476, due to internal conflicts and foreign invasions, the Roman Empire was divided into two empires, the west and the east, Italy and Constantinople as the capital respectively. With the division, Christianity began to split into Roman Catholicism and the Orthodox Eastern Church.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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1.佛教典籍共分为经、律、论三藏。“藏”的原意是可以盛放东西的竹箧，有容纳、收藏的含义，佛教用以概括全部佛教典籍。经是释迦本人所说的教义；律是佛陀为教徒制定的必须遵守的规则及其解释；论是为阐明经、律而作的各种理论的解释和研究。<br />
<br />
Buddhist scriptures are divided into three types: sutra, the law and the theory. The original meaning of "Zang" is a bamboo scaffold that can hold things, thus it has the meaning of containing and storing, used by Buddhism to summarize all Buddhist classics. Sutras are the doctrines that Sakyamuni himself said; laws are the rules and explanations that the must be followed by Budda's followers; theory is the interpretation and research accomplishment of various theories to clarify sutras and laws.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教以“道”为最高信仰。“道”无形无象，而又生育天地万物。“道”在人和万物中的显现就是“德”。故万物莫不尊道而贵德。道散则为气，聚则为神。神仙既是道的化身，又是得道的楷模。神仙以济世度人为宗旨。故道教徒既信道德，又拜神仙。<br />
<br />
Taoism takes "Tao" as its highest belief. "Tao" is invisible, yet it gives birth to all things in the world. The manifestation of "Tao" in people and everything is "Virtue". Therefore, all things respect the Tao and the Virtue. When Dao scatters, it will be Qi (means air); gathers, be God. The gods are not only the incarnation of Tao, but also the models of attaining Tao. The purpose of immortals is to save the world and save people. Therefore, Taoists believe in virtue and worship gods.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br />
<br />
Islam has developed from a regional single-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world. It is widely spread by Arab Islamic countries through continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and sending missionaries to the world.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.基督的两性：基督既是完全的神，又是完全的人，兼具完全的神性和完全的人性。<br />
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The two natures of Christ: Christ is both a perfect God and a perfect man, with both perfect divinity and perfect humanity.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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1.藏传佛教法器类繁多，具有浓厚的神秘色彩。这些法器大体可以分为礼敬、称赞、供养、持验、护魔、劝导六大类。每件法器都有其不同的宗教含义，有的法器兼有数种用途。<br />
<br />
There are many kinds of magical instruments in Tibetan Buddhism, which are full of mystery. These implements can be roughly divided into six categories: homage, praise, support, holding, magic protection, persuasion. Each has its own religious meaning, and some serve several purposes.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:21, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.道教文学艺术就是以宣传道教教义、神仙长生思想以及反映其宗教生活为题材的内容的各种形式的文学艺术作品。文学艺术可以扩大道教的社会影响，进而提高道教的宗教素质。反过来，道教的神仙信仰也给中国文学艺术的发展巨大的影响。<br />
<br />
Taoist literature and art are all kinds of literature and art works with the theme of promoting Taoist Doctrine, immortal and longevity thought and reflecting religious life. Literature and art can enlarge the social influence of Taoism, and then improve the religious quality of Taoism. In turn, the immortal belief of Taoism also to the Chinese literature and art development profound influence.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:21, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.穆罕默德在早期的宣教中，告诫人们放弃多神信仰和偶像崇拜，宣称真主是宇宙万物的创造者，是唯一的主宰，要求人们信奉独一无二的真主。<br />
<br />
In Muhammad's early preachings,he exhorted people to abandon polytheism and idolatry, declaring that God is the creator of all things in the universe and the only master, and asking people to believe in the one and only God.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:21, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.三位一体，基督教教义，谓上帝只有一个，但包括圣父、圣子耶稣基督和圣灵三个位格。三者虽位格有别，而本质绝无分别，同受钦崇，同享尊荣，同为永恒。三位一体把《圣经》中所记述的对上帝本性的认识的三个中心要素放在一起，即：神创造世界、神藉着耶稣基督救助人类、神藉着圣灵与基督徒和教会同在。<br />
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The Trinity, a Christian doctrine that there is only one God but includes the father, the son Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. Although the three positions are different, but there is no difference in nature. The Trinity brings together the three central elements of biblical knowledge of the nature of God: God’s creation of the world, God’s salvation through Jesus, and God’s presence with Christians and the church through the Holy Spirit.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:21, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
1.佛教经由两条路径传入中国，一支由古印度经西域传入中原地区，尔后传入朝鲜半岛、越南、日本等处，称北传佛教。另一支则由东南亚传至中国南方，为南传佛教，但其影响力不及于中原，因此并不被包括在汉传佛教中。<br />
<br />
Buddhism was introduced into China through two routes, one was introduced into the Central Plains from ancient India via the Western Regions, and then into the Korean Peninsula, Vietnam, Japan and other places, called Northern Buddhism. The other one was spread from Southeast Asia to southern China as Southern Buddhism, but its influence was not as great as that of the Central Plains, so it was not included in Chinese Buddhism.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 12:28, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Buddhism was introduced to China through two routes: one was from ancient India to the Central Plains via the Western region, and then to the Korean Peninsula, Vietnam, and Japan, called Northern Buddhism. The other one came from Southeast Asia to Southern China, called Southern Buddhism, but its influence was not as good as in the Central Plains, so it was not included in the Chinese Buddhism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.开光是道教特有的一种宗教科仪，道教认为凡是所塑的神像都要经过一道程序，即装藏。<br />
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Consecration is a religious ritual peculiar to Taoism. Taoism believes that all statues of gods must go through a process, which is to hide.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 12:28, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Consecration (refers to invite benevolent spirit ) is a religious ritual unique to Taoism. Taoism believes that all statues of deities go through a process called ''zhuangzang'', which refers to a hole is left behind the statue and when consecrating, the monk will put scriptures, jewels, grains, and metal lungs and livers in and seal the hole. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.“伊斯兰”系阿拉伯语音译，意为“顺从”、“和平”，指顺从和信仰创造宇宙的独一无二的主宰安拉及其意志，信奉伊斯兰教的人统称为“穆斯林”，意为“顺从者”。<br />
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"Islam" is an Arabic transliteration, meaning "obedience" and "peace". It refers to obedience and belief in the unique ruler of Allah and its will that created the universe. People who believe in Islam are collectively referred to as "Muslims", meaning "submissive ".--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 12:28, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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"Islam" is a transliterated word of the Arabic, meaning "obedience" and "peace" which refers to obedience to and faith in Allah and his will, the unique master who created the universe. Those who believe in Islam are known as "Muslims", meaning "the obedient". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.“基督”是希腊语的弥赛亚（救世主），当时在犹太人中传布着一种弥赛亚的预言，大致是说，犹太人将要出一个像古代名王大卫（公元前11世纪的一位犹太民族英雄，建立犹太王国，定都耶路撒冷）那样的民族救世主，实现“上帝的国”。<br />
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"Christ" is the Greek Messiah (Savior). At that time, a Messianic prophecy was preached among the Jews. It roughly means that the Jews will have a national savior like the ancient king David (a Jewish national hero in the 11th century BC who established the Jewish kingdom and set the capital in Jerusalem), and realize the "kingdom of God".--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 12:28, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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"Christ" is the Greek word for Messiah (Savior). At that time, there was a Messianic prophecy spreading among the Jews that the Jews would have a national savior like the ancient king David (a Jewish national hero of the 11th century BC who founded the Jewish kingdom and set its capital in Jerusalem),and realize the "Kingdom of God". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=110662History of Translation Studies 42020-12-12T13:00:12Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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='''Theories'''=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
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==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation and further improve the translation level in China. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高，进一步提高国内的翻译水平。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions, cultural background and religious belief. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. The whole thesis expounds feasible translation strategies through typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).hrough typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
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===7. References===<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions. Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former. Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position. Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. <br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative.<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. <br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81) "Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture. Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language. A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text. Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh. With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized . The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences. Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57) The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction. The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation. Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations. In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” (Wang Yingping 2011, 216) A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection.(Liu Miqing 1986,4) In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<br />
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Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010,11)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong（Sun Banggen 2007,9） translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017,8)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.(Huang Jin Li 2010,11) In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem.（Wu Tong 2018,16）In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010,11）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010,3)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. <br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22). The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. (1988). Approaches to Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. (1987). A Textbook of Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30). The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158). For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
[6] 兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话［Ｍ］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
[7] 李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D].天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
[8] 李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
[9] 谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
[10] 邹永红.汉语歇后语与翻译刍议[J].陕西教育·理论,2006(09):197-198.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects(Yin Boan 2000, 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language(1987, 69). According to Jakobson(1987, 63), the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson 1973, 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington 2000, 161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective(Shklovsky 1998, 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson 1987, 67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson 1987,69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson 1987, 85). Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958, 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky 1998, 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. <br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions(Lu Yang 2008, 126). Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. <br />
<br />
In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more( Thackeray 1994, 17).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957, 11)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005, 11)。<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined(Thackeray 1994, 177).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957, 175)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005, 190)。<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under(Thackeray 1994, 238)!<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957, 234)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005, 254)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay(Thackeray 2003, 507).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌(1957, 498)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌(2005, 538)。<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter(Zhang Keding 2001, 21). There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter. This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90). Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng 2010,7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48). Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms. Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones(Lu Yang 2008, 128). They usually own a task to achieve poetic function. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. (Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text. Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in Cong Cong.<br />
Cong Cong was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.<br />
The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> Quan Meixin 202020080637</center><br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture and reflect the value of national culture. The fourth part will focus on the important role of foreignizing translation in cultural exchanges and promoting Chinese food culture to go out. The fifth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
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=== '''题目''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
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=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为五部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出如何运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，来保留中国饮食文化的特色和体现民族文化的价值；第四部分简要分析食文化异化翻译的对外宣传作用和如何推动中国“食”文化走出去；第五部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
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=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
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===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
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During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
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===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(1995: 20) It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
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In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
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=== '''2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
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Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
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===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
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The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar. Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.<br />
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“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu Xianling, 2005:230)<br />
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Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
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Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
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“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food. At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health. Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu Zhishan, 2005:92)<br />
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We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.<br />
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Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history. According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu Xianling,2005:234)<br />
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So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. <br />
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===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
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Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
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The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".<br />
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In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.<br />
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For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
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For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.<br />
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The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
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===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
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The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture". In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc., in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc., from which we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
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For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
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This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
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The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments. The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
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“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.<br />
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2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".<br />
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3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
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After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and conclude the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important meetings interpreted by Chinese leaders.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have few knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and the modern society. Therefore there are distorted and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyse and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time. Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
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===1.Overview of interpretation theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation,there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively. Interpretation theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation. It argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated. The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning. ()<br />
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It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
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===2. Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretation Theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretation theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopaedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. ()<br />
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In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. This saying is familiar in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
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===3.Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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===3.1 Definition and classification of cultural load words===<br />
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. Leiden . 1964：91）<br />
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By comparing the translated materials and data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
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(1)Three-character Structure<br />
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A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation. At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.<br />
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(2)Four-character Structure<br />
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In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture. Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speeches, for example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
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(3) Idioms<br />
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Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than translated word by word.（） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
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(4) Poetry<br />
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Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong: “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
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(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
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Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
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===3.2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
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（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
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"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
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（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
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The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
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（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
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Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
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===4.Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyse and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretation theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.; second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders. <br />
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===4.1 Literal translation===<br />
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A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
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Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（1）<br />
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Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
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Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。（1）<br />
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Translation: We Chinese have s a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
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Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”（2013 BOAO）<br />
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Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
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Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colourful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
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Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”（1）<br />
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Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
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Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
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===4.2 Semantic Interpretation===<br />
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Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
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Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”（2）<br />
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Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. （2）<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' here refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker,that is emphasising the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
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Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”（2）<br />
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Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
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Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
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Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”（2010）<br />
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Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasising how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
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===4.3 Free Translation===<br />
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Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
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Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”<br />
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Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
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Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The interpreted translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
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Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”1<br />
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Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well,and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
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Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)The interpreted translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible to an English-speaking audience.<br />
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===4.4 Streamlining Information Interpretation===<br />
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In conference interpretation, Interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information,which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
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Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” （2）<br />
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Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
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Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”（温家宝2005年记者招待会）<br />
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Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
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Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
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Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”<br />
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Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-pleople connectivity.<br />
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Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
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Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
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Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
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Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
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Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
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Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
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LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
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Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
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Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
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张梦原. Zhang Mengyuan. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretation Theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
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===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
[1]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation,26 April 2019<br />
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https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
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[2]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2018,Boao, 10 April 2018<br />
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https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
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[3]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2015, Boao, 7 April 2013<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
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[4]Report on the Work of the Government,Delivered at the Third Session of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on March 5, 2010 by Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
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[5]Premier Wen Jiabao Answers Questions from Chinese and Foreign Journalists at a Press Conference <br />
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https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
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[6]Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China At UNESCO Headquarters<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
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==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation<br />
and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
===The connotation of cultural confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications. In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication. Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
The last category, linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical <br />
categories.<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culturally loaded words translatable or not? Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)<br />
And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research(Nida 1975)<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words. However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture. Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing. In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture. In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties(Qiu Mao-Ru<br />
2001(01):24-27).<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.(Translated by Zhuyuan,1998)This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which ) refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(郑德虎,2016(02):53-56).<br />
.<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language. Another example:<br />
Original text：道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．‘<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language. <br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）.<br />
）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation. At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's <br />
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Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009. <br />
Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
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Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
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Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
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Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.<br />
上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
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====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
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China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
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====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
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====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
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====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
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The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
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The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
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The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
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Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
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With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
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====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
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Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
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In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
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====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
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The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
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===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
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====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
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====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
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====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
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====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
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====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
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===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
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====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
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Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
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In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
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====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
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Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
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Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
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"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
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Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
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Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
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Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
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In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
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Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
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Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
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White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
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==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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===题目===<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. <br />
The early stage<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. <br />
The developing stage <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-57 )<br />
The peaking stage<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation(Chen Fukang 2000,32). Xuan has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). <br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century <br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. <br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. <br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to, and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: direct translation and translation into Italian alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved. In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. <br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.<br />
Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language; <br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase. Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation. When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）.北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
谭载喜.西方翻译简史.北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
谢天振.中西翻译简史.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
王军. 中国佛经翻译和西方《圣经》翻译的启示[J]. 西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,(02):30-35.<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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===II.Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
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Example 1<br />
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ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
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TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
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TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
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TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
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Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
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TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
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Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
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Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
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TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
*Cao Xueqin. 曹雪芹. (2004). 红楼梦.[The Story of the Stone].企鹅出版社[Penguin].<br />
<br />
*Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei. 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）.[Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)].中国外语[Foreign Languages in China]4-11.<br />
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*Dong Chuan, Chen Ling. 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究.[Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques].体育世界（学术版）[Sports World (Academic Edition)]55-56.<br />
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*Dong Xiaobo. 董晓波. (2012). 翻译概论.[An Introduction to Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
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*Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). 商务英语翻译.[Business English Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
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*Han Tingting. 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究.[A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].福建茶叶 [Fujian Tea]298-299.<br />
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*Jeremy Mundy. 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). 翻译学导论——理论与实践.[An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
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*Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui. 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例.[Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example].中国民航飞行学院学报[Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China]42-46.<br />
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*Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略.[Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].考试周刊 [Exam Weekly]79-81.<br />
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*Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究.[Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].青年文学家[Young Scholars]31-32.<br />
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*Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo. 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). 红楼梦.[A Dream of Red Mansions].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Languages Press].<br />
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*Wang Xingsun. 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨.[Discussion on the Development of International Business English].国际商务研究[International Business Studies]24-28.<br />
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*Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z. 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). 翻译与旅游业:跨文化宣传的有效策略.[Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion].施普林格出版社[Springer].<br />
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*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例.[Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples].中国翻译[Chinese Translators]82-88.<br />
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*Yang Xianyi. 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例.[Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br />
<br />
==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 ==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
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Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
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=== Introduction === <br />
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The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
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As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
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=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
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Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
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=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
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Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
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Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
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Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
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Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
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Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
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The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
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Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
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Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
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Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
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Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
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Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
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Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
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Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
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Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue ==<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（胡婷婷，12—14）<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（百度百科）<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（向阳，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.（黄璐，吴起颖，2013）<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. （黄璐，吴起颖，2013）Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.（胡婷婷，6-8）<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（胡婷婷，22-25）<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（朱理萍，22-27）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[J]. 中国大学生就业, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=110660History of Translation Studies 42020-12-12T12:53:13Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation and further improve the translation level in China. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高，进一步提高国内的翻译水平。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions, cultural background and religious belief. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. The whole thesis expounds feasible translation strategies through typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).hrough typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions. Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former. Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position. Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. <br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative.<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. <br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81) "Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture. Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language. A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text. Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh. With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized . The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences. Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57) The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction. The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation. Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations. In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” (Wang Yingping 2011, 216) A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection.(Liu Miqing 1986,4) In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<br />
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Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010,11)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong（Sun Banggen 2007,9） translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017,8)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.(Huang Jin Li 2010,11) In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem.（Wu Tong 2018,16）In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010,11）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010,3)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. <br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22). The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. (1988). Approaches to Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. (1987). A Textbook of Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30). The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158). For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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[6] 兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话［Ｍ］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
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[7] 李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D].天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
[8] 李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
[9] 谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
[10] 邹永红.汉语歇后语与翻译刍议[J].陕西教育·理论,2006(09):197-198.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects(Yin Boan 2000, 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language(1987, 69). According to Jakobson(1987, 63), the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson 1973, 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington 2000, 161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective(Shklovsky 1998, 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson 1987, 67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson 1987,69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson 1987, 85). Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958, 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky 1998, 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. <br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions(Lu Yang 2008, 126). Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. <br />
<br />
In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more( Thackeray 1994, 17).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957, 11)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005, 11)。<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined(Thackeray 1994, 177).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957, 175)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005, 190)。<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under(Thackeray 1994, 238)!<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957, 234)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005, 254)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay(Thackeray 2003, 507).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌(1957, 498)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌(2005, 538)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter(Zhang Keding 2001, 21). There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter. This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90). Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng 2010,7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48). Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms. Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones(Lu Yang 2008, 128). They usually own a task to achieve poetic function. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. (Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text. Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in Cong Cong.<br />
Cong Cong was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.<br />
The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin’s translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin’s translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin’s translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin’s translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui’s theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin’s translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin’s translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin’s translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin’s transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin’s translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi’s defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi’s aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia’s Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui’s Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing’s Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin’s translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin’s Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin’s cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduceation of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin’s Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin’s aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin’s translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin’s translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin’s choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin’s Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin’s translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin’s translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin’s translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin’s comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin’s aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin’s Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin’s translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin’s translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin’s translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin’s version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin’s translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin’s psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin’s translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin’s translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin’s translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin’s translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> Quan Meixin 202020080637</center><br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture and reflect the value of national culture. The fourth part will focus on the important role of foreignizing translation in cultural exchanges and promoting Chinese food culture to go out. The fifth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== '''题目''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为五部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出如何运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，来保留中国饮食文化的特色和体现民族文化的价值；第四部分简要分析食文化异化翻译的对外宣传作用和如何推动中国“食”文化走出去；第五部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
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During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(1995: 20) It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
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In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
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=== '''2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
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Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
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===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
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The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar. Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.<br />
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“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu Xianling, 2005:230)<br />
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Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
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Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
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“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food. At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health. Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu Zhishan, 2005:92)<br />
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We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.<br />
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Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history. According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu Xianling,2005:234)<br />
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So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. <br />
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===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
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Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
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The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".<br />
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In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.<br />
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For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
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For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.<br />
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The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
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===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
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The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture". In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc., in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc., from which we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
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For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
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This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
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The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments. The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
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“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.<br />
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2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".<br />
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3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
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After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and conclude the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important meetings interpreted by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have few knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and the modern society. Therefore there are distorted and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyse and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time. Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
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===1.Overview of interpretation theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation,there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively. Interpretation theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation. It argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated. The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning. ()<br />
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It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
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===2. Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretation Theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretation theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopaedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. ()<br />
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In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. This saying is familiar in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
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===3.Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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===3.1 Definition and classification of cultural load words===<br />
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. Leiden . 1964：91）<br />
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By comparing the translated materials and data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
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(1)Three-character Structure<br />
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A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation. At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.<br />
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(2)Four-character Structure<br />
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In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture. Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speeches, for example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
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(3) Idioms<br />
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Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than translated word by word.（） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
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(4) Poetry<br />
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Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong: “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
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(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
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Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
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===3.2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
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（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
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"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
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（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
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The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
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（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
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Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
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===4.Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyse and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretation theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.; second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders. <br />
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===4.1 Literal translation===<br />
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A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
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Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（1）<br />
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Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
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Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。（1）<br />
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Translation: We Chinese have s a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
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Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”（2013 BOAO）<br />
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Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
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Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colourful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
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Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”（1）<br />
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Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
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Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
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===4.2 Semantic Interpretation===<br />
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Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
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Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”（2）<br />
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Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. （2）<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' here refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker,that is emphasising the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
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Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”（2）<br />
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Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
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Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
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Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”（2010）<br />
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Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasising how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
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===4.3 Free Translation===<br />
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Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
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Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”<br />
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Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
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Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The interpreted translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
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Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”1<br />
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Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well,and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
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Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)The interpreted translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible to an English-speaking audience.<br />
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===4.4 Streamlining Information Interpretation===<br />
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In conference interpretation, Interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information,which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
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Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” （2）<br />
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Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
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Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”（温家宝2005年记者招待会）<br />
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Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
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Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
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Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”<br />
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Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-pleople connectivity.<br />
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Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
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Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
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Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
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Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
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Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
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LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
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Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
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张梦原. Zhang Mengyuan. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretation Theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
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===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
[1]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation,26 April 2019<br />
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https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
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[2]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2018,Boao, 10 April 2018<br />
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https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
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[3]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2015, Boao, 7 April 2013<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
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[4]Report on the Work of the Government,Delivered at the Third Session of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on March 5, 2010 by Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
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[5]Premier Wen Jiabao Answers Questions from Chinese and Foreign Journalists at a Press Conference <br />
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https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
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[6]Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China At UNESCO Headquarters<br />
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http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
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==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation<br />
and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
===The connotation of cultural confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications. In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication. Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
The last category, linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical <br />
categories.<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culturally loaded words translatable or not? Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)<br />
And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research(Nida 1975)<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words. However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture. Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing. In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture. In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties(Qiu Mao-Ru<br />
2001(01):24-27).<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.(Translated by Zhuyuan,1998)This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which ) refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(郑德虎,2016(02):53-56).<br />
.<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language. Another example:<br />
Original text：道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．‘<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language. <br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）.<br />
）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation. At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's <br />
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Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009. <br />
Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
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Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
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Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
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Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.<br />
上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
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====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
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China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
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====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
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====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
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====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
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The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
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The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
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The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
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Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
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With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
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====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
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Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
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In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
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====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
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The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
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===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
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====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
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====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
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====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
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====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
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====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
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===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
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====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
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Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
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In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
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====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
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Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
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Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
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"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
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Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
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Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
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Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
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In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
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Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
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Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
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White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
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==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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===题目===<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. <br />
The early stage<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. <br />
The developing stage <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-57 )<br />
The peaking stage<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation(Chen Fukang 2000,32). Xuan has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). <br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century <br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. <br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. <br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to, and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: direct translation and translation into Italian alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved. In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. <br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.<br />
Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language; <br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase. Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation. When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）.北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
谭载喜.西方翻译简史.北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
谢天振.中西翻译简史.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
王军. 中国佛经翻译和西方《圣经》翻译的启示[J]. 西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,(02):30-35.<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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===II.Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
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Example 1<br />
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ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
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TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
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TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
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TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
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Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
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TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
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Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
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Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
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TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
*Cao Xueqin. 曹雪芹. (2004). 红楼梦.[The Story of the Stone].企鹅出版社[Penguin].<br />
<br />
*Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei. 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）.[Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)].中国外语[Foreign Languages in China]4-11.<br />
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*Dong Chuan, Chen Ling. 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究.[Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques].体育世界（学术版）[Sports World (Academic Edition)]55-56.<br />
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*Dong Xiaobo. 董晓波. (2012). 翻译概论.[An Introduction to Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
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*Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). 商务英语翻译.[Business English Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
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*Han Tingting. 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究.[A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].福建茶叶 [Fujian Tea]298-299.<br />
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*Jeremy Mundy. 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). 翻译学导论——理论与实践.[An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
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*Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui. 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例.[Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example].中国民航飞行学院学报[Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China]42-46.<br />
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*Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略.[Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].考试周刊 [Exam Weekly]79-81.<br />
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*Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究.[Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].青年文学家[Young Scholars]31-32.<br />
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*Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo. 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). 红楼梦.[A Dream of Red Mansions].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Languages Press].<br />
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*Wang Xingsun. 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨.[Discussion on the Development of International Business English].国际商务研究[International Business Studies]24-28.<br />
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*Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z. 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). 翻译与旅游业:跨文化宣传的有效策略.[Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion].施普林格出版社[Springer].<br />
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*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例.[Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples].中国翻译[Chinese Translators]82-88.<br />
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*Yang Xianyi. 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例.[Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br />
<br />
==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 ==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
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Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
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=== Introduction === <br />
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The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
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As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
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=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
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Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
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=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
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Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
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Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
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Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
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Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
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Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
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The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
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Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
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Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
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Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
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Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
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Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
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Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
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Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
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Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue ==<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（胡婷婷，12—14）<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（百度百科）<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（向阳，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.（黄璐，吴起颖，2013）<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. （黄璐，吴起颖，2013）Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.（胡婷婷，6-8）<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（胡婷婷，22-25）<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（朱理萍，22-27）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[J]. 中国大学生就业, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=110653History of Translation Studies 42020-12-12T12:39:00Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* 关键字 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation and further improve the translation level in China. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高，进一步提高国内的翻译水平。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions, cultural background and religious belief. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. The whole thesis expounds feasible translation strategies through typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).hrough typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions. Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former. Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position. Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. <br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative.<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. <br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81) "Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture. Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language. A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text. Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh. With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized . The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences. Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57) The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction. The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation. Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations. In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” (Wang Yingping 2011, 216) A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection.(Liu Miqing 1986,4) In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<br />
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Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010,11)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong（Sun Banggen 2007,9） translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017,8)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.(Huang Jin Li 2010,11) In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem.（Wu Tong 2018,16）In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010,11）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010,3)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. <br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22). The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. (1988). Approaches to Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. (1987). A Textbook of Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30). The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158). For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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[6] 兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话［Ｍ］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
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[7] 李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D].天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
[8] 李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
[9] 谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
[10] 邹永红.汉语歇后语与翻译刍议[J].陕西教育·理论,2006(09):197-198.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects(Yin Boan 2000, 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language(1987, 69). According to Jakobson(1987, 63), the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson 1973, 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington 2000, 161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective(Shklovsky 1998, 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson 1987, 67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson 1987,69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson 1987, 85). Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958, 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky 1998, 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. <br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions(Lu Yang 2008, 126). Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. <br />
<br />
In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more( Thackeray 1994, 17).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957, 11)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005, 11)。<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined(Thackeray 1994, 177).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957, 175)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005, 190)。<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under(Thackeray 1994, 238)!<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957, 234)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005, 254)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay(Thackeray 2003, 507).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌(1957, 498)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌(2005, 538)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter(Zhang Keding 2001, 21). There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter. This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90). Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng 2010,7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48). Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms. Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones(Lu Yang 2008, 128). They usually own a task to achieve poetic function. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. (Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text. Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in Cong Cong.<br />
Cong Cong was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.<br />
The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin’s translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin’s translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin’s translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin’s translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui’s theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin’s translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin’s translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin’s translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin’s transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin’s translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi’s defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi’s aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia’s Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui’s Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing’s Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
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==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> Quan Meixin 202020080637</center><br />
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=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
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Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture and reflect the value of national culture. The fourth part will focus on the important role of foreignizing translation in cultural exchanges and promoting Chinese food culture to go out. The fifth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
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=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
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=== '''题目''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
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=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为五部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出如何运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，来保留中国饮食文化的特色和体现民族文化的价值；第四部分简要分析食文化异化翻译的对外宣传作用和如何推动中国“食”文化走出去；第五部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
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=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
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=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
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===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
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“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
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During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
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===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(1995: 20) It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
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In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
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=== '''2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
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Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
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===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
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The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar. Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.<br />
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“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu Xianling, 2005:230)<br />
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Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
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Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
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“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food. At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health. Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu Zhishan, 2005:92)<br />
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We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.<br />
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Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history. According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu Xianling,2005:234)<br />
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So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. <br />
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===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
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Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
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The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".<br />
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In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.<br />
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For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
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For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.<br />
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The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
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===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
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The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture". In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc., in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc., from which we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
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For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
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This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
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The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments. The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
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“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.<br />
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2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".<br />
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3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
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After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
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== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and conclude the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important meetings interpreted by Chinese leaders.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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interpretive theory; culture-loaded words, translation strategy<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have few knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and the modern society. Therefore there are distorted and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyse and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time. Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
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===1.Overview of interpretation theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation,there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively. Interpretation theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation. It argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated. The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning. ()<br />
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It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
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===2. Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretation Theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretation theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopaedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. ()<br />
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In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. This saying is familiar in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
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===3.Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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===3.1 Definition and classification of cultural load words===<br />
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. Leiden . 1964：91）<br />
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By comparing the translated materials and data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
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(1)Three-character Structure<br />
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A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation. At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.<br />
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(2)Four-character Structure<br />
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In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture. Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speeches, for example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than translated word by word.（） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong: “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
===4.Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyse and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretation theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.; second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders. <br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal translation===<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（1）<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。（1）<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have s a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”（2013 BOAO）<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colourful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”（1）<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Semantic Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”（2）<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. （2）<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' here refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker,that is emphasising the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”（2）<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”（2010）<br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasising how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
===4.3 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The interpreted translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”1<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well,and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)The interpreted translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible to an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
===4.4 Streamlining Information Interpretation===<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, Interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information,which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” （2）<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”（温家宝2005年记者招待会）<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-pleople connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
张梦原. Zhang Mengyuan. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretation Theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
[1]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation,26 April 2019<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
[2]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2018,Boao, 10 April 2018<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
[3]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2015, Boao, 7 April 2013<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[4]Report on the Work of the Government,Delivered at the Third Session of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on March 5, 2010 by Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[5]Premier Wen Jiabao Answers Questions from Chinese and Foreign Journalists at a Press Conference <br />
<br />
https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
[6]Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China At UNESCO Headquarters<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation<br />
and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
===The connotation of cultural confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications. In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication. Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
The last category, linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical <br />
categories.<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culturally loaded words translatable or not? Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)<br />
And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research(Nida 1975)<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words. However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture. Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing. In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture. In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties(Qiu Mao-Ru<br />
2001(01):24-27).<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.(Translated by Zhuyuan,1998)This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which ) refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(郑德虎,2016(02):53-56).<br />
.<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language. Another example:<br />
Original text：道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．‘<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language. <br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）.<br />
）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation. At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's <br />
Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009. <br />
Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001<br />
Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.<br />
上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
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Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
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With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
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====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
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Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
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In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
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====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
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The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
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===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
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====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
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====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
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====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
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====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
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====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
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===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
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====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
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Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
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In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
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====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
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Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
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Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
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"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
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Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
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Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
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Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
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In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
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Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
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Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
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White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
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==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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===题目===<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. <br />
The early stage<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. <br />
The developing stage <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-57 )<br />
The peaking stage<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation(Chen Fukang 2000,32). Xuan has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). <br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century <br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. <br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. <br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to, and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: direct translation and translation into Italian alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved. In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. <br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.<br />
Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language; <br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase. Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation. When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）.北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
谭载喜.西方翻译简史.北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
谢天振.中西翻译简史.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
王军. 中国佛经翻译和西方《圣经》翻译的启示[J]. 西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,(02):30-35.<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===II.Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
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TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
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TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
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TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
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Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
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TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
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Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
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====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
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Example 6<br />
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ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
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====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
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Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
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Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
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TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
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===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
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===IV.References===<br />
*Cao Xueqin. 曹雪芹. (2004). 红楼梦.[The Story of the Stone].企鹅出版社[Penguin].<br />
<br />
*Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei. 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）.[Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)].中国外语[Foreign Languages in China]4-11.<br />
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*Dong Chuan, Chen Ling. 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究.[Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques].体育世界（学术版）[Sports World (Academic Edition)]55-56.<br />
<br />
*Dong Xiaobo. 董晓波. (2012). 翻译概论.[An Introduction to Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
<br />
*Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). 商务英语翻译.[Business English Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
<br />
*Han Tingting. 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究.[A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].福建茶叶 [Fujian Tea]298-299.<br />
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*Jeremy Mundy. 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). 翻译学导论——理论与实践.[An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
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*Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui. 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例.[Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example].中国民航飞行学院学报[Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China]42-46.<br />
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*Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略.[Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].考试周刊 [Exam Weekly]79-81.<br />
<br />
*Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究.[Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].青年文学家[Young Scholars]31-32.<br />
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*Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo. 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). 红楼梦.[A Dream of Red Mansions].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Languages Press].<br />
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*Wang Xingsun. 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨.[Discussion on the Development of International Business English].国际商务研究[International Business Studies]24-28.<br />
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*Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z. 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). 翻译与旅游业:跨文化宣传的有效策略.[Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion].施普林格出版社[Springer].<br />
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*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例.[Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples].中国翻译[Chinese Translators]82-88.<br />
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*Yang Xianyi. 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例.[Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br />
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==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
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<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 ==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
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=== Introduction === <br />
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The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
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As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
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=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
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Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
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=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
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Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
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Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
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Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
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Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
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Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
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The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
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=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
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Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
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Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
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Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
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Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
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Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
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Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
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Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
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Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
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Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
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Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
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As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
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"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
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Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
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=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
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The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
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=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
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Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
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=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
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In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== Conclusion === <br />
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As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
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=== References === <br />
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Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
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Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
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Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
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Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
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Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
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Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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== On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue ==<br />
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== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling ==<br />
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<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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目的论；简历；翻译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
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A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
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According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
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Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（胡婷婷，12—14）<br />
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1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
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When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
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1.2.2 Clarity<br />
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The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（百度百科）<br />
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1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
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Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.<br />
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1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
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If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（向阳，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
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1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
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I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
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====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
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Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
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1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
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If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
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1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
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According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.（黄璐，吴起颖，2013）<br />
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1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
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In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. （黄璐，吴起颖，2013）Here are examples:<br />
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①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
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The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
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====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
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In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
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The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
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According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
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The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
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The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
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====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
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2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
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From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
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2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
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Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
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When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
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2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
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According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
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2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
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This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.（胡婷婷，6-8）<br />
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In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
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From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
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====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
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The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
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3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
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A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
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These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
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Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
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3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
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Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
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From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
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Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（胡婷婷，22-25）<br />
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====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
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It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
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Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
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In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
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3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
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When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
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Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
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Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（朱理萍，22-27）<br />
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====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
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In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
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3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
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There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
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Example 5:<br />
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姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
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政治面貌：团员<br />
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婚否：已婚<br />
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地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[J]. 中国大学生就业, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=110652History of Translation Studies 42020-12-12T12:37:42Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation and further improve the translation level in China. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高，进一步提高国内的翻译水平。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions, cultural background and religious belief. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. The whole thesis expounds feasible translation strategies through typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).hrough typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions. Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former. Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position. Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. <br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81) "Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture. Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language. A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text. Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh. With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized . The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences. Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57) The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction. The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation. Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations. In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” (Wang Yingping 2011, 216) A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection.(Liu Miqing 1986,4) In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<br />
<br />
Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010,11)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong（Sun Banggen 2007,9） translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017,8)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.(Huang Jin Li 2010,11) In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem.（Wu Tong 2018,16）In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010,11）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010,3)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. <br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22). The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. (1988). Approaches to Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. (1987). A Textbook of Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30). The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158). For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
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[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
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[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
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[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
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===4 A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in form====<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects(Yin Boan 2000, 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language(1987, 69). According to Jakobson(1987, 63), the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson 1973, 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington 2000, 161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective(Shklovsky 1998, 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson 1987, 67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson 1987,69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson 1987, 85). Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958, 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky 1998, 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. <br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions(Lu Yang 2008, 126). Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. <br />
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In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more( Thackeray 1994, 17).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957, 11)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005, 11)。<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined(Thackeray 1994, 177).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957, 175)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005, 190)。<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under(Thackeray 1994, 238)!<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957, 234)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005, 254)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay(Thackeray 2003, 507).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌(1957, 498)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌(2005, 538)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter(Zhang Keding 2001, 21). There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter. This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90). Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng 2010,7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48). Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms. Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones(Lu Yang 2008, 128). They usually own a task to achieve poetic function. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. (Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text. Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in Cong Cong.<br />
Cong Cong was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.<br />
The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin’s translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin’s translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin’s translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin’s translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui’s theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin’s translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin’s translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin’s translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin’s transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin’s translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi’s defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi’s aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia’s Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui’s Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing’s Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> Quan Meixin 202020080637</center><br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture and reflect the value of national culture. The fourth part will focus on the important role of foreignizing translation in cultural exchanges and promoting Chinese food culture to go out. The fifth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== '''题目''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为五部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出如何运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，来保留中国饮食文化的特色和体现民族文化的价值；第四部分简要分析食文化异化翻译的对外宣传作用和如何推动中国“食”文化走出去；第五部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
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===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(1995: 20) It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
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In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
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=== '''2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
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Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
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===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
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The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar. Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.<br />
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“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu Xianling, 2005:230)<br />
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Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
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Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
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“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food. At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health. Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu Zhishan, 2005:92)<br />
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We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.<br />
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Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history. According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu Xianling,2005:234)<br />
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So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. <br />
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===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
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Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
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The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".<br />
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In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.<br />
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For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
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For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.<br />
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The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
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===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
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The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture". In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc., in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc., from which we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
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For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
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This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
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The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments. The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
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“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.<br />
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2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".<br />
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3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
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After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
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== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and conclude the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important meetings interpreted by Chinese leaders.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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interpretive theory; culture-loaded words, translation strategy<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have few knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and the modern society. Therefore there are distorted and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyse and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time. Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
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===1.Overview of interpretation theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation,there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively. Interpretation theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation. It argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated. The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning. ()<br />
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It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
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===2. Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretation Theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretation theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopaedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. ()<br />
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In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. This saying is familiar in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
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===3.Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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===3.1 Definition and classification of cultural load words===<br />
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. Leiden . 1964：91）<br />
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By comparing the translated materials and data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
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(1)Three-character Structure<br />
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A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation. At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.<br />
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(2)Four-character Structure<br />
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In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture. Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speeches, for example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
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(3) Idioms<br />
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Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than translated word by word.（） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
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(4) Poetry<br />
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Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong: “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
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(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
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Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
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===3.2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
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（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
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"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
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（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
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The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
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（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
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Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
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===4.Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyse and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretation theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.; second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders. <br />
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===4.1 Literal translation===<br />
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A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
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Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（1）<br />
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Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
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Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。（1）<br />
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Translation: We Chinese have s a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
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Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”（2013 BOAO）<br />
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Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
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Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colourful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
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Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”（1）<br />
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Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
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Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
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===4.2 Semantic Interpretation===<br />
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Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
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Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”（2）<br />
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Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. （2）<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' here refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker,that is emphasising the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”（2）<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”（2010）<br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasising how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
===4.3 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The interpreted translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”1<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well,and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)The interpreted translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible to an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
===4.4 Streamlining Information Interpretation===<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, Interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information,which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” （2）<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”（温家宝2005年记者招待会）<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-pleople connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
张梦原. Zhang Mengyuan. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretation Theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
[1]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation,26 April 2019<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
[2]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2018,Boao, 10 April 2018<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
[3]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2015, Boao, 7 April 2013<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[4]Report on the Work of the Government,Delivered at the Third Session of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on March 5, 2010 by Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[5]Premier Wen Jiabao Answers Questions from Chinese and Foreign Journalists at a Press Conference <br />
<br />
https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
[6]Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China At UNESCO Headquarters<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation<br />
and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
===The connotation of cultural confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications. In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication. Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
The last category, linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical <br />
categories.<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culturally loaded words translatable or not? Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)<br />
And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research(Nida 1975)<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words. However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture. Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing. In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture. In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties(Qiu Mao-Ru<br />
2001(01):24-27).<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.(Translated by Zhuyuan,1998)This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.<br />
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For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
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====Literal Translation====<br />
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“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which ) refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
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Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
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English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
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As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
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However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(郑德虎,2016(02):53-56).<br />
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====Paraphrasing====<br />
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This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language. Another example:<br />
Original text：道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．‘<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language. <br />
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==== Free Translation====<br />
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English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
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Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
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English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
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In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation. At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
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Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's <br />
Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009. <br />
Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001<br />
Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.<br />
上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
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====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
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China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
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====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
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====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
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====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
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The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
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The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
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The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
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Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
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With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
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====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
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Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
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In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
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====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
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The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
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===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
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====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
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====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
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====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
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====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
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====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
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===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
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====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
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Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
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In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
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====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
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Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
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Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
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"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
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Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
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Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
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Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
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In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
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====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
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Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
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Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
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White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
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==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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===题目===<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. <br />
The early stage<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. <br />
The developing stage <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-57 )<br />
The peaking stage<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation(Chen Fukang 2000,32). Xuan has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). <br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century <br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. <br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. <br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to, and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: direct translation and translation into Italian alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved. In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. <br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.<br />
Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language; <br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase. Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation. When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）.北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
谭载喜.西方翻译简史.北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
谢天振.中西翻译简史.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
王军. 中国佛经翻译和西方《圣经》翻译的启示[J]. 西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,(02):30-35.<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===II.Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
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Example 6<br />
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ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
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====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
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Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
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Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
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TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
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===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
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This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
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===IV.References===<br />
*Cao Xueqin. 曹雪芹. (2004). 红楼梦.[The Story of the Stone].企鹅出版社[Penguin].<br />
<br />
*Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei. 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）.[Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)].中国外语[Foreign Languages in China]4-11.<br />
<br />
*Dong Chuan, Chen Ling. 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究.[Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques].体育世界（学术版）[Sports World (Academic Edition)]55-56.<br />
<br />
*Dong Xiaobo. 董晓波. (2012). 翻译概论.[An Introduction to Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
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*Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). 商务英语翻译.[Business English Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
<br />
*Han Tingting. 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究.[A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].福建茶叶 [Fujian Tea]298-299.<br />
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*Jeremy Mundy. 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). 翻译学导论——理论与实践.[An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
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*Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui. 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例.[Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example].中国民航飞行学院学报[Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China]42-46.<br />
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*Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略.[Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].考试周刊 [Exam Weekly]79-81.<br />
<br />
*Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究.[Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].青年文学家[Young Scholars]31-32.<br />
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*Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo. 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). 红楼梦.[A Dream of Red Mansions].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Xingsun. 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨.[Discussion on the Development of International Business English].国际商务研究[International Business Studies]24-28.<br />
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*Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z. 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). 翻译与旅游业:跨文化宣传的有效策略.[Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion].施普林格出版社[Springer].<br />
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*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例.[Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples].中国翻译[Chinese Translators]82-88.<br />
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*Yang Xianyi. 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例.[Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br />
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==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
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== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 ==<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
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Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
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'''关键词'''<br />
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目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
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=== Introduction === <br />
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The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
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As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
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=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
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Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
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=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
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Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
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Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
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Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
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Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
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Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
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The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
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=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
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Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
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Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
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Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
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Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
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Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
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Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
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Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
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Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
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Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
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Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
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As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
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"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
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Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
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=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
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=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
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=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
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In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== Conclusion === <br />
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As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
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Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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== On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue ==<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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目的论；简历；翻译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
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A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
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According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
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Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（胡婷婷，12—14）<br />
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1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
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When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
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1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（百度百科）<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（向阳，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.（黄璐，吴起颖，2013）<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. （黄璐，吴起颖，2013）Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.（胡婷婷，6-8）<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（胡婷婷，22-25）<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（朱理萍，22-27）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
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[11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br />
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[12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=110651History of Translation Studies 42020-12-12T12:36:52Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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='''Theories'''=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation and further improve the translation level in China. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高，进一步提高国内的翻译水平。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions, cultural background and religious belief. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. The whole thesis expounds feasible translation strategies through typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).hrough typical examples and comparisons to better translation quality.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions. Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former. Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position. Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. <br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81) "Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture. Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language. A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text. Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh. With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized . The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences. Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57) The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction. The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation. Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations. In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” (Wang Yingping 2011, 216) A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection.(Liu Miqing 1986,4) In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<br />
<br />
Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010,11)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong（Sun Banggen 2007,9） translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017,8)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.(Huang Jin Li 2010,11) In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem.（Wu Tong 2018,16）In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010,11）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010,3)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. <br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22). The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. (1988). Approaches to Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. (1987). A Textbook of Translation [M]. Prentice Hall.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30). The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158). For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
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[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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[6] 兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话［Ｍ］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
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[7] 李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D].天津财经大学,2014.<br />
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[8] 李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
[9] 谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
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[10] 邹永红.汉语歇后语与翻译刍议[J].陕西教育·理论,2006(09):197-198.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
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===4 A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in form====<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects(Yin Boan 2000, 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language(1987, 69). According to Jakobson(1987, 63), the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson 1973, 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington 2000, 161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective(Shklovsky 1998, 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson 1987, 67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson 1987,69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson 1987, 85). Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958, 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky 1998, 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. <br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions(Lu Yang 2008, 126). Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. <br />
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In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more( Thackeray 1994, 17).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957, 11)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005, 11)。<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined(Thackeray 1994, 177).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957, 175)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005, 190)。<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under(Thackeray 1994, 238)!<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957, 234)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005, 254)。<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay(Thackeray 2003, 507).<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌(1957, 498)。<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌(2005, 538)。<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter(Zhang Keding 2001, 21). There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter. This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90). Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng 2010,7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48). Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms. Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones(Lu Yang 2008, 128). They usually own a task to achieve poetic function. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. (Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text. Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in Cong Cong.<br />
Cong Cong was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.<br />
The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. And his fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin’s translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin’s translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin’s translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin’s translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui’s theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin’s translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin’s translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin’s translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin’s transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin’s translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi’s defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi’s aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia’s Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui’s Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing’s Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing’s theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> Quan Meixin 202020080637</center><br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture and reflect the value of national culture. The fourth part will focus on the important role of foreignizing translation in cultural exchanges and promoting Chinese food culture to go out. The fifth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== '''题目''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为五部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出如何运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，来保留中国饮食文化的特色和体现民族文化的价值；第四部分简要分析食文化异化翻译的对外宣传作用和如何推动中国“食”文化走出去；第五部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(1995: 20) It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
=== '''2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar. Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu Xianling, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food. At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health. Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu Zhishan, 2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history. According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu Xianling,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. <br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
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The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture". In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc., in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc., from which we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
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For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
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This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
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The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments. The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
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“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.<br />
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2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".<br />
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3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
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After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
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== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and conclude the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important meetings interpreted by Chinese leaders.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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interpretive theory; culture-loaded words, translation strategy<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have few knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and the modern society. Therefore there are distorted and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyse and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time. Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
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===1.Overview of interpretation theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation,there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively. Interpretation theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation. It argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated. The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning. ()<br />
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It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
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===2. Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretation Theory===<br />
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The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretation theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopaedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. ()<br />
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In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. This saying is familiar in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
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===3.Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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===3.1 Definition and classification of cultural load words===<br />
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. Leiden . 1964：91）<br />
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By comparing the translated materials and data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
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(1)Three-character Structure<br />
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A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation. At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.<br />
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(2)Four-character Structure<br />
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In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture. Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speeches, for example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
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(3) Idioms<br />
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Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than translated word by word.（） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
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(4) Poetry<br />
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Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong: “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
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(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
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Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
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===3.2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
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（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
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"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
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（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
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The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
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（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
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Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
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===4.Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyse and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretation theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.; second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders. <br />
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===4.1 Literal translation===<br />
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A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
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Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（1）<br />
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Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
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Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。（1）<br />
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Translation: We Chinese have s a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
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Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”（2013 BOAO）<br />
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Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
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Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colourful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
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Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”（1）<br />
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Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
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Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
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===4.2 Semantic Interpretation===<br />
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Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
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Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”（2）<br />
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Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. （2）<br />
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Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' here refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker,that is emphasising the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
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Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”（2）<br />
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Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
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Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
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Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”（2010）<br />
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Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
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Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasising how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
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===4.3 Free Translation===<br />
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Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
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Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”<br />
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Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
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Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The interpreted translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
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Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”1<br />
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Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well,and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
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Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)The interpreted translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible to an English-speaking audience.<br />
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===4.4 Streamlining Information Interpretation===<br />
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In conference interpretation, Interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information,which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
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Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” （2）<br />
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Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
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Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”（温家宝2005年记者招待会）<br />
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Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
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Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
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Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”<br />
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Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-pleople connectivity.<br />
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Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
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Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
张梦原. Zhang Mengyuan. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretation Theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
[1]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China at the Opening Ceremony of the Second Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation,26 April 2019<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
[2]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2018,Boao, 10 April 2018<br />
<br />
https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
[3]Keynote Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China at the Opening of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference 2015, Boao, 7 April 2013<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[4]Report on the Work of the Government,Delivered at the Third Session of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on March 5, 2010 by Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
[5]Premier Wen Jiabao Answers Questions from Chinese and Foreign Journalists at a Press Conference <br />
<br />
https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
[6]Speech by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People's Republic of China At UNESCO Headquarters<br />
<br />
http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation<br />
and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
===The connotation of cultural confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications. In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication. Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
The last category, linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical <br />
categories.<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culturally loaded words translatable or not? Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)<br />
And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research(Nida 1975)<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words. However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture. Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing. In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture. In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties(Qiu Mao-Ru<br />
2001(01):24-27).<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.(Translated by Zhuyuan,1998)This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which ) refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(郑德虎,2016(02):53-56).<br />
.<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language. Another example:<br />
Original text：道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．‘<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language. <br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）.<br />
）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation. At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's <br />
Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
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<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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===题目===<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. <br />
The early stage<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. <br />
The developing stage <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-57 )<br />
The peaking stage<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation(Chen Fukang 2000,32). Xuan has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). <br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century <br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. <br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. <br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to, and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: direct translation and translation into Italian alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved. In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. <br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.<br />
Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language; <br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase. Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation. When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）.北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
谭载喜.西方翻译简史.北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
谢天振.中西翻译简史.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
王军. 中国佛经翻译和西方《圣经》翻译的启示[J]. 西北民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,(02):30-35.<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
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====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
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The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
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Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
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The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
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To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
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====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
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====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
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===II.Case Analysis===<br />
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====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
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Example 1<br />
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ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
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TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
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TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
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TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
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Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
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TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
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Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
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====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
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Example 6<br />
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ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
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====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
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Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
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Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
*Cao Xueqin. 曹雪芹. (2004). 红楼梦.[The Story of the Stone].企鹅出版社[Penguin].<br />
<br />
*Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei. 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）.[Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)].中国外语[Foreign Languages in China]4-11.<br />
<br />
*Dong Chuan, Chen Ling. 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究.[Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques].体育世界（学术版）[Sports World (Academic Edition)]55-56.<br />
<br />
*Dong Xiaobo. 董晓波. (2012). 翻译概论.[An Introduction to Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
<br />
*Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). 商务英语翻译.[Business English Translation].对外经贸大学出版社[University of International Business and Economics Press].<br />
<br />
*Han Tingting. 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究.[A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].福建茶叶 [Fujian Tea]298-299.<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Mundy. 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). 翻译学导论——理论与实践.[An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
*Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui. 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例.[Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example].中国民航飞行学院学报[Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China]42-46.<br />
<br />
*Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略.[Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].考试周刊 [Exam Weekly]79-81.<br />
<br />
*Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究.[Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].青年文学家[Young Scholars]31-32.<br />
<br />
*Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo. 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). 红楼梦.[A Dream of Red Mansions].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Xingsun. 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨.[Discussion on the Development of International Business English].国际商务研究[International Business Studies]24-28.<br />
<br />
*Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z. 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). 翻译与旅游业:跨文化宣传的有效策略.[Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion].施普林格出版社[Springer].<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例.[Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples].中国翻译[Chinese Translators]82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi. 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例.[Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br />
<br />
==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 ==<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
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目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
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=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
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Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
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=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
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Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
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Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
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Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue ==<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（胡婷婷，12—14）<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（百度百科）<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（向阳，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.（黄璐，吴起颖，2013）<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. （黄璐，吴起颖，2013）Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.（胡婷婷，6-8）<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（胡婷婷，22-25）<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（朱理萍，22-27）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[J]. 中国大学生就业, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110648History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T12:12:58Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Translating EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
<hr />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
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Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
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==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
<br />
(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
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What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
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The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
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Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110647Introduction to Translation Studies2020-12-12T12:12:24Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Websites to write your final exam paper on */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br />
<br />
Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br />
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欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
<br />
=Organizational Things=<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki.<br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
<br />
Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br />
In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
<br />
=Edits=<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
<br />
=Material=<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
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*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Recommendations:<br />
<br />
Topic Book/Paper<br />
<br />
1 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Emergence<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
<br />
3a History of Translation <br />
*3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
*3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
<br />
4 Early understanding <br />
*Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br />
1990.<br />
*Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
5 Translation Studies<br />
*5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
* 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
<br />
6 Translation Theories<br />
* 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
*6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br />
<br />
7 Theory and Practise <br />
*7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
*7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
8<br />
*8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
<br />
9 Theories<br />
*9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
=Main class project=<br />
Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br />
<br />
=Schedule=<br />
'''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br />
<br />
==1st Session==<br />
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
<br />
=== Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies". It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
<br />
5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
<br />
==2nd Session: Emergence==<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==Session 4: Development==<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
<br />
==Session 5: ==<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 7: Western theories=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 8: Methods=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
<br />
===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 9: Style=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
<br />
=Session 10: Translation Studies=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
<br />
Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
=Session 12: Different Aspects=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
=Session 13: East West comparison=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles===<br />
<br />
===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
<br />
===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 14: Strategies=<br />
=Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br />
=Session 16: Final Discussion=<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu, 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110645Introduction to Translation Studies2020-12-12T12:11:43Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Websites to write your final exam paper on */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br />
<br />
Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br />
<br />
欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
<br />
=Organizational Things=<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki.<br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
<br />
Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br />
In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
<br />
=Edits=<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
<br />
=Material=<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Recommendations:<br />
<br />
Topic Book/Paper<br />
<br />
1 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Emergence<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
<br />
3a History of Translation <br />
*3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
*3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
<br />
4 Early understanding <br />
*Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br />
1990.<br />
*Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
5 Translation Studies<br />
*5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
* 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
<br />
6 Translation Theories<br />
* 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
*6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br />
<br />
7 Theory and Practise <br />
*7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
*7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
8<br />
*8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
<br />
9 Theories<br />
*9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
=Main class project=<br />
Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br />
<br />
=Schedule=<br />
'''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br />
<br />
==1st Session==<br />
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
<br />
=== Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies". It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
<br />
5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
<br />
==2nd Session: Emergence==<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
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==Session 4: Development==<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
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3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
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==Session 5: ==<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=Session 7: Western theories=<br />
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===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=Session 8: Methods=<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=Session 9: Style=<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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=Session 10: Translation Studies=<br />
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===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
<br />
Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
=Session 12: Different Aspects=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
=Session 13: East West comparison=<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles===<br />
<br />
===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
<br />
===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Session 14: Strategies=<br />
=Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br />
=Session 16: Final Discussion=<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu, 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=109516History of Translation Studies 102020-12-10T07:52:06Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Translating EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
== A Study on Translating EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. <br />
This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word, which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important, followed by form”. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, the translation technique of “recreate” can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence. “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language. <br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
As one of Wilde’s most successful play, The Importance of Being Earnest is the rage in the 19th century. The author will introduce this play first, including its author, background and language features. And then, we will talk about its Chinese versions.<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
This part talks about Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. It includes an overview of its Chinese versions and Yu Guangzhong’s version.<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times. Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.<br />
Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures and Western Biblical Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi Student No. 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere’s Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook and Liu Miqing’s A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles are two books about translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. this paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpt about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. The second part will give an introduction of A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles and display scholar’s evaluation of the book. In the third part, the author will make a comparison of these two books to deepen reader’s understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分本文将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述并收集相关学者对此书的看法和评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔，《翻译，历史与文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook serves as a good proof of “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explained that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (lefevere 2003, xi). With reference to these concepts, Lefevere aimed to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs deep exploration for cultural studies. Such idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translator’s inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our own understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will make an analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “author and translator” to “master slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating poem in such a way is like to “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator needn’t to care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter Two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translator’s inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies.( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to summarize the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing translates “Sixiang” (thought in chinese) into “principle” in this book. Here follows the titles of each chapters: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu’s Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form”; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein’s View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of “Language Game”; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: to appeal for reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
The first part(chapter one to chapter six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. with reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first stage was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second stage was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third stage is from 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principle strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation：The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators’ awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of meaning of Chinese translation studies, and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179).The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture.(liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is “technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of “translation and language game”,Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
<br />
What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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== Expectations on the Role of Interpreters in Intercultural Interpretation and Coping Strategies for Cultural Differences 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=109513History of Translation Studies 102020-12-10T07:47:24Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* A Study on Translation of EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
== A Study on Translating EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. <br />
This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word, which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important, followed by form”. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, the translation technique of “recreate” can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence. “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language. <br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
As one of Wilde’s most successful play, The Importance of Being Earnest is the rage in the 19th century. The author will introduce this play first, including its author, background and language features. And then, we will talk about its Chinese versions.<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
This part talks about Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. It includes an overview of its Chinese versions and Yu Guangzhong’s version.<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times. Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.<br />
Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures and Western Biblical Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi Student No. 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere’s Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook and Liu Miqing’s A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles are two books about translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. this paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpt about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. The second part will give an introduction of A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles and display scholar’s evaluation of the book. In the third part, the author will make a comparison of these two books to deepen reader’s understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分本文将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述并收集相关学者对此书的看法和评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔，《翻译，历史与文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook serves as a good proof of “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explained that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (lefevere 2003, xi). With reference to these concepts, Lefevere aimed to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs deep exploration for cultural studies. Such idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translator’s inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our own understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will make an analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “author and translator” to “master slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating poem in such a way is like to “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator needn’t to care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter Two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translator’s inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies.( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to summarize the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing translates “Sixiang” (thought in chinese) into “principle” in this book. Here follows the titles of each chapters: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu’s Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form”; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein’s View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of “Language Game”; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: to appeal for reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
The first part(chapter one to chapter six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. with reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first stage was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second stage was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third stage is from 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principle strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation：The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators’ awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of meaning of Chinese translation studies, and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179).The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture.(liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is “technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of “translation and language game”,Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
<br />
What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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== Expectations on the Role of Interpreters in Intercultural Interpretation and Coping Strategies for Cultural Differences 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=109511History of Translation Studies 102020-12-10T07:44:39Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* On Translation of EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
== A Study on Translation of EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. <br />
This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word, which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important, followed by form”. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, the translation technique of “recreate” can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence. “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language. <br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
As one of Wilde’s most successful play, The Importance of Being Earnest is the rage in the 19th century. The author will introduce this play first, including its author, background and language features. And then, we will talk about its Chinese versions.<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
This part talks about Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. It includes an overview of its Chinese versions and Yu Guangzhong’s version.<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times. Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.<br />
Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures and Western Biblical Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi Student No. 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere’s Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook and Liu Miqing’s A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles are two books about translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. this paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpt about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. The second part will give an introduction of A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles and display scholar’s evaluation of the book. In the third part, the author will make a comparison of these two books to deepen reader’s understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分本文将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述并收集相关学者对此书的看法和评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔，《翻译，历史与文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook serves as a good proof of “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explained that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (lefevere 2003, xi). With reference to these concepts, Lefevere aimed to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs deep exploration for cultural studies. Such idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translator’s inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our own understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will make an analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “author and translator” to “master slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating poem in such a way is like to “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator needn’t to care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter Two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translator’s inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies.( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to summarize the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing translates “Sixiang” (thought in chinese) into “principle” in this book. Here follows the titles of each chapters: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu’s Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form”; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein’s View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of “Language Game”; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: to appeal for reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
The first part(chapter one to chapter six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. with reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first stage was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second stage was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third stage is from 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principle strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation：The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators’ awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of meaning of Chinese translation studies, and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179).The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture.(liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is “technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of “translation and language game”,Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
<br />
What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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== Expectations on the Role of Interpreters in Intercultural Interpretation and Coping Strategies for Cultural Differences 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .</div>Zhou Yuanquhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=108486History of Translation Studies 42020-12-07T10:22:46Z<p>Zhou Yuanqu: /* Translation Aesthetics */</p>
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='''Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On metaphors 游雨婷 You Yuting==<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==Polysystem and Cultural Turn 吴琪 WuQi==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made great contributions to translation studies. The two translators are recognized for their translation skills, but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. The two translators are recognized<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span> for their translation skills, but they have different views on literary translation, which will be proven in the comparative study in section 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their respective English translations.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span> Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest more empty and quiet. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on. When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
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The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The so-called "月明星稀，乌鹊南飞" (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like "绕树三匝，无枝可依". They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Therefore, if we compare "Niao Ming Jian" to Cao Cao's "Duan Ge Xing", in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
In his landscape poems, Wang Wei inclines to create a quiet atmosphere. This holds also true for this poem. But what this poem is about is the falling of flowers, the rising of the moon and the singing of birds. These moving scenes not only make the poem full of vitality but also highlight the tranquility of the spring stream by dynamic scenes. Moving scenes, on the contrary, have a static effect, because the two sides of an object in conflict are always interdependent. Under certain conditions, the reason why movement can occur, or can be noticed by people, is based on the premise of static environment. "鸟鸣山更幽" can be seen as an entity containing dialectics of art.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, most translators advocate translating poetry into poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows:<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem more empty and lonely. In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese. Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter. In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流". In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry, poetry in painting".<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.<span style="color:red">'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''</span><br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报'' [Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] (4):52-<span style="color:red">'''Page range missing. E.g. 52-63'''</span>.<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [Translation of Classical Dictionaries. Translingual lexicon.] Shanghai: 上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
*黄婧，李仕俊. 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文[J]. 外语, 2010(31): 130.<br />
*劳琴姚，罗正婷.翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例[J]. 安徽文学, 2017(9):49-51.<br />
*刘宓庆.翻译美学导论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005. <br />
*陶迎年.从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本[J]. 语言应用研究, 2017(8):143-145.<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. Comparison of four translations of "A Stream of Birds" from the perspective of translation aesthetics [J]. Foreign Languages, 2010(31): 130.<br />
*Aesthetic Effect of Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics. Reproduction of Aesthetic Effects from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics: Taking the Two Translations of The Tale of the Drunken Wondrous Pavilion as an Example[J]. Anhui Literature, 2017(9):49-51.<br />
*Liu Miqing. An introduction to translation aesthetics [M]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2005. <br />
*Tao Yingnian. Comparison of five English translations of Birdsongjian from the three aesthetics of sound, form and meaning[J]. Language Application Research, 2017(8):143-145.<br />
*Wang Li. Poetry patterns [M]. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuji, 2000:133. <br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. Translation of ancient Chinese poems from the perspective of translation aesthetics [J]. 2018(16): 151.<br />
*Wang Jie. The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation[J]. Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science, 2020(23): 111.<br />
*Xie Wenli. Aesthetics of Poetry [M]. Beijing: China Youth Press, 1989.<br />
*Yu Shucheng et al. A dictionary for appreciating Tang poetry [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Juxue Shu Publishing House, 1983:183-185.<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. Poetry Theory [M]. Beijing: Life and Reading, Xinzhi Sanlian Bookstore, 1998.<br />
*王力.诗词格律[M].北京：中华书局, 2000:133. <br />
*吴桐，李淑华.从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译[J]. 2018(16): 151.<br />
*王洁.杨宪益文学翻译思想探析[J]. 西安文理学院学报,2020(23): 111.<br />
*谢文利.诗歌美学[M]. 北京: 中国青年出版社, 1989．<br />
*余恕诚等. 唐诗鉴赏辞典[M]. 上海：上海辞书出版社, 1983:183-185.<br />
*朱光潜.诗论[M].北京：生活读书新知三联书店出版, 1998.<span style="color:red">'''Please work on your references' section.'''</span><br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, Cathay, Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes firist in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander (乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them (天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me(天地与我并生，而万物与我为一),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure"'''===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"'''====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected hightide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water (君子之交淡如水)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human (君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
both in metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages (为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ From Stenudd, Stefan. “Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained”: “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中” ]<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taois artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s Cathay: Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. Ezra Pound’s Cathay[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232. <br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
==='''Textual Level'''===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
==='''Referential Level'''===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level” (2001b: 22) In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion” ( 2001b:24), the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level. There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made.<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. <br />
<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”.<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001b:26). In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation” (Newmark, 2001b:24). It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” (Newmark, 2001b:34) is one of the main problems during the translation process.<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation (Newmark:2001b 22) is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===18.4.1 Abstract===<br />
<br />
===18.4.2 Key Words===<br />
<br />
===18.4.3 Contents===<br />
<br />
===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies 姚诚 Yao Cheng==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language. However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation. For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of pome translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery.<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen. The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist. For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women. Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English. For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br />
An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]辜正坤. 中西诗比较鉴赏与翻译理论 [M]北京:清华大学出版社,2003.<br />
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[2]许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈[J].中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
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[3]李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[J].兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
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[4]隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[J].英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
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[5]饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[J].安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
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[6]杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[J].南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
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[7]马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[J].天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
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[8]王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[J].河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
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[9]何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[J].成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
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[10]孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[J].三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
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[12]赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[J].安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. <br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the problem of untranslatability will be further discussed using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.<br />
<br />
However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation. According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect.<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively.<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part.<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility, the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation.<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey.<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
<br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.<br />
=<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Chinese wisecrack. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before.<br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.<br />
<br />
It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. <br />
<br />
Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.<br />
<br />
The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
[2] Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
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[3] Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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[4] 曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦［Ｍ］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
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[5] 冯翠华,英语修辞大全[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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[6] 兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话［Ｍ］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
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[7] 李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D].天津财经大学,2014.<br />
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[8] 李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
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[9] 谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
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[10] 邹永红.汉语歇后语与翻译刍议[J].陕西教育·理论,2006(09):197-198.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. <br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Weiqing, 1994) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Yu Yongji, and The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Weiqing's book "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics" published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book "Translation Aesthetics" came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article. As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied. At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Mu Lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers. From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002:61) Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929: 30). One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (2003: 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995: 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.<br />
<br />
===Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis “An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an “in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. <br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his “Chinese Lyrics” by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book “101 Chinese Lyrics” by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book “The Importance of Understanding. Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG”, with Li Qingzhao'sCi-poem “Sheng Sheng Man “and “Comments om Ci-poetry” in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. <br />
Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Invited by the editor of Twayne's World Authors Series (TWAS), Hu Pinqing translated and published the Biography Li Ch 'ing-chao in the US in 1966. She is the first Taiwan scholar to translate complete works of Ci-poetry of Li Qingzhao, and makes a remarkable contribution to the introduction and popularization of Li Qingzhao and Chinese poetry theory to the western world. <br />
Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book” An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems “appeared for the readers at home and abroad. <br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus “Literature and Translation” in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. <br />
Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph” Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade” with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. <br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis “On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao “ is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.<br />
In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works “Song Lyrics” (《宋词》). Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 200 1), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)..<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her PhD. dissertation “A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao”, which published as a monograph in early2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro. <br />
In recent years, there are many Master' s theses focusing on the research of Li Qingzhao' s works. Some theses are from the perspective of hermeneutics, such as Xie Yuzhen's thesis in 2006, Liu Jingjing's in 2008, Xia Yi's in 2008 and Huang Ying's in 2009. Hou Limei' s thesis is from the perspective of translation strategies in 2007.Chen Dan's thesis is from the perspective of androgyny in 2008. Pei Pei's thesis mainly adopts the theory of intertextuality. <br />
To research Chinese ancient literature, we cannot miss the studies on Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The scholars pay their attentions to the translation and introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-poetry. The Master' s theses illustrated above mainly make the companions between the original text and its English version from different perspectives. None of them has made an evaluation of the quality of translations, so the author of this present research will start from this new view. Among the existing TQA Models, Julian House 's model has great advantages in its profound theories, detail ed assessing procedures as well as objective criticism. It will be the first attempt to apply House's TQA Model to Chinese classical poetry.<br />
<br />
===A case study of Sheng sheng man from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentence from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’ s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';Poetics theory;inverted sentence;Literariness<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；文学性<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of a same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translation this book. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording and many other aspects(Yin Boan,2000: 79). Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bear its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations in perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original text is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction on relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds the functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration on internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is art of language(1987: 69). According to Jakobson(1987: 63), the main question that poetics studies is what transforms verbal message into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson, 1973: 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington, 2000:161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention in poetic perspective(Shklovsky, 1998: 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson, 1987:67, 85). Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin, 2006:19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson, 1987: 69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson, 1981a: 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson, 1987: 85). Therefore, form of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, form of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. <br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studying art of literature is actually studying language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958: 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wang Dongfeng, 2010: 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky, 1998: 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is a indispensable method to appreciate literature in perspective of poetics. <br />
<br />
An inverted sentences is actually a way of defarmiliarization. For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30). Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the location of the daughter. This kind of sentence form is a writing skill which an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of text. It will be discussed in details in next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed(Wang Dongfeng, 2010: 6). Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of Vanity Fair’s translation in China. However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation in the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts different method to tackle with About inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss in detail in comparison between their translation with examples.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more. ( Thackeray 1994)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃(1957: 11)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭(2005: 11)。<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. This form actually is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and makes a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in action and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translate this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information of Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. He adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize capitalist system and expose darkness of the society in that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产(1957; 175)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产(2005; 190)。<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she has not get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses inverted sentence here, putting her feelings in the beginning of the whole sentence. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form which could highlights Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of order of clauses and translate it in similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations changes it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. Changing sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to source text than Yang Bi’s translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击(1957: 234)。<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞(2005: 254)。<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son want to marry with Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foreground while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to background. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results.Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. It is a pity that difference between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before subject which will cause logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
The language style of their translations are relatively plain and faithfully follows the original work. But through the discussion of examples above, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translation of inverted sentences is more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation. Inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries important message. In ''Vanity Fair'', Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personality, situation and experience, that is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:7). Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures. And in the era of Peng Changjiang, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again(Wang Dongfeng, 2010:11). And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes an comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think what contains in form by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin author’s emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, that will destroy literariness unconsciously. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1]Jakobson,R.''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1987:62-95<br />
<br />
[2]Jakobson,R. Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''[C]. Oxford University Press,1973:58-82.<br />
<br />
[3]Pilkington,A.''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' [M]. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000: 161-169.<br />
<br />
[4]Shklovsky, V. Art as technique [A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1998: 15-21.<br />
<br />
[5]Feng Zongxin封宗信. 《现代语言学流派概论》[M]，北京大学出版社，2006:19-34.<br />
<br />
[6]Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la:63.<br />
<br />
[7]Wang Dongfeng王东风.形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[J].中国翻译,2010,31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[8]Yin Boan尹伯安.重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[J].山东师大外国语学院学报,2000(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[9]Thackeray,W. ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd , 2003.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Bi杨必.《名利场》[M].北京:人民文学出版社，1957: 11, 175, 234.<br />
<br />
[11]Peng Changjiang彭长江.《名利场》[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社，2005: 11, 190, 254.<br />
<br />
[12]Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press, 2009: 217.<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center>全美欣 Quan Meixin<br />
湖南师范大学 外国语学院，湖南 长沙</center><br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract ''' ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, words of local customs and words of food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture, reflect the value of national culture, and promote Chinese food culture to go out. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
=== '''Key Words''' ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== '''摘要''' ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，保留中国饮食文化的特色，体现民族文化的价值，推动中国“食”文化走出去；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
=== '''关键词''' ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== '''1.Introduction''' ===<br />
<br />
===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br />
<br />
===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br />
<br />
=== '''2.Categories of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br />
<br />
==Translation of Cultural words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi==<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, "In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination. However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. As China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Therefore, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has proposed the concept of "firm cultural confidence", which has been widely accepted by the Chinese people. Against this backdrop, English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
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==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan==<br />
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<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===Works Cited===<br />
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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting==<br />
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== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
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='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
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<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
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===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
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====1.1Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules.<br />
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The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord, 2001:29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.<br />
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Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge.<br />
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The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent.<br />
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To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
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====1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here.<br />
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The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture.<br />
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An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being.<br />
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====1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope.<br />
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On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions.<br />
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On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies.<br />
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===II.Case Analysis===<br />
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====2.1The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson, 2019, p.17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br />
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Example 1<br />
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ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br />
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TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
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TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br />
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TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
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Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br />
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TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
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Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
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====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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Example 4<br />
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ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br />
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TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br />
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Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br />
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TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br />
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Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
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Example 6<br />
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ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br />
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TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
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Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
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====2.3The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙,1997:24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民,王立非,2009) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
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ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br />
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TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
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TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
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ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br />
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TT1:未来即现在。<br />
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TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
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Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br />
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TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===III.Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
[1]杨先一.林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例[D]青岛:山东大学,2009.<br />
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[2]Cao Xueqin. ''The Story of the Stone'' [M].London: Penguin,2004.<br />
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[3]董晓波,翻译概论[M].北京:对外经贸大学出版社,2012.<br />
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[4]郭晓燕,商务英语翻译[M].北京:对外经贸大学出版社,2017.<br />
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[5]杰里米•芒迪，翻译学导论——理论与实践[M].北京:商务印书馆,2007.<br />
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[6]Wilson Rita & Sulaiman, M, Z. ''Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion'' [M].Singapore: Springer,2019.<br />
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[7]Tsao Hsuen-Chin & Kao Hgo. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' [M].Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994.<br />
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[8]熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例[J].中国翻译,2014(3):82-88.<br />
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[9]董川, 陈玲.武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究[J].体育世界（学术版）,2020(1):55-56.<br />
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[10]焦炭,张辉.旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例[J].中国民航飞行学院学报,2019(3):42-46.<br />
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[11]韩婷婷.目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究[J].福建茶叶,2020(9):298-299.<br />
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[12]宋玉露.目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究[J].青年文学家,2020(32):31-32.<br />
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[13]莫红利.目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略[J].考试周刊,2014(6):79-81.<br />
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[14]王兴孙.对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨[J].国际商务研究:1997(1):24-28.<br />
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[15]陈准民,王立非.解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）[J].2009(4):4-11.<br />
<br />
==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''' <br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''' <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
'''I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''<br />
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As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars. <br />
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'''1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang'''<br />
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Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. According to Wikipedia, Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
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'''1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version'''<br />
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''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
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'''II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory''' <br />
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The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
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'''2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
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'''2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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'''III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
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'''3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
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'''3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
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'''3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.''' <br />
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A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
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'''3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
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'''3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
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Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon.<br />
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Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him.<br />
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Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. <br />
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As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops.<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow.<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao.<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top.<br />
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The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
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Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints.<br />
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Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun.<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. <br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
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Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day.<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me.<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death.<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow.<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water.<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
'''3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies''' <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
'''3.3.1 Translator'''<br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
'''3.3.2 Readership'''<br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
'''3.3.3 Translation Purpose'''<br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
'''References''' <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==<br />
<br />
==On the Translation of Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要:===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词:===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
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A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
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===1.1 Definition of Resume===<br />
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According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br />
A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br />
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===1.2 Features of Resume===<br />
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Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.<br />
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===1.2.1 Conciseness===<br />
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When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br />
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===1.2.2 Clarity===<br />
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The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.<br />
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===1.2.4 Pertinence===<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.<br />
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===1.2.5 Objectivity===<br />
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I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br />
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===1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes===<br />
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Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
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===1.3.1 Role of Resume===<br />
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If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br />
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===1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume===<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.<br />
<br />
===1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume===<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.<br />
<br />
===1.3.3 Focus of Resume===<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. Here are examples:<br />
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①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
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The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
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Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory===<br />
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In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
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The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
===2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
===2.2.1 Skopos Rule===<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br />
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===2.2.2 Coherence Rule===<br />
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Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br />
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When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br />
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===2.2.3 Fidelity Rule===<br />
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According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br />
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===2.2.4 Loyalty Rule===<br />
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This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
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In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
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===Chapter 3Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
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From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
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===3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation===<br />
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The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br />
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===3.1.1 Action verbs===<br />
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A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
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Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br />
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===3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation===<br />
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Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br />
Translation:<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
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From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
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Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.<br />
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===3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation===<br />
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It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
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===3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence===<br />
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Example 3:<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
Translation 1:<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
Translation 2:<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
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In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
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===3.2.2 Syntactic Unity===<br />
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When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
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Example 4:<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
Translation:<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
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Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.<br />
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===3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation===<br />
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In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br />
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===3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information===<br />
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There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
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Example 5:<br />
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姓名：张三<br />
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性别：男<br />
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年龄：25<br />
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身高：185<br />
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政治面貌：团员<br />
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婚否：已婚<br />
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地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
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电话：1337658xxxx<br />
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电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
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Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
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Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
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By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
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===3.3.2 Concise Style===<br />
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As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br />
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Example 6:<br />
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2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
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2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
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2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
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Translation 1:<br />
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2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
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2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
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2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
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Translation 2:<br />
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Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
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National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
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Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
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Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
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Outstanding League Members<br />
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The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
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A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
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Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
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===Notes===<br />
<br />
① 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015: 10.<br />
<br />
② 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历的英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018: 22.<br />
<br />
<br />
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=== The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==</div>Zhou Yuanqu